自尊
| 此{{#if:|{{#ifeq:none|left|章节|条目或其章节}}}}{{#if:|具有{{{reason}}}的问题，}}需要精通或熟悉{{#if:|[[]]{{#if:|、[[]]{{#if:|、[[]]}}}}|相关主题}}的编者参与及协助编辑。 (2015年12月14日) |
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}} }}
}} 自尊（英语：Self-esteem），或称自我肯定，是个体对自身价值的主观评价。自尊包括对自己的信念（例如，“我不被爱”、“我值得”）以及情绪状态，例如胜利、绝望、骄傲和羞耻。<ref>Hewitt, John P. Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. 2009: 217–24. ISBN 978-0195187243.</ref> Smith 和 Mackie 在2007年发表的论文中，将其定义为“自我概念是我们对自我的看法；自尊是对自我的正面或负面评价，就像我们对自我的感受一样。”<ref name="SmithMackie">Smith, E. R.; Mackie, D. M. Social Psychology Third. Hove: Psychology Press. 2007. ISBN 978-1841694085.</ref>
自尊是一种引人关注的心理学概念，因为它可以预测某些结果，例如学业成绩<ref>Marsh, H.W. Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal path analysis.. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1990, 82 (4): 646–56. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.646.</ref><ref name="ecuador">Urbina Robalino, Gisella del Rocio; Eugenio Piloso, Mery Aracely. Efectos de la violencia intrafamiliar en el autoestima de los estudiantes de octavo y noveno año de la Escuela de educación básica 11 de Diciembre (学位论文). Advised by S. Yagual. Ecuador: Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena. 2015 [2021-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-13） （español）.</ref>、幸福感<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003">Baumeister, R. F.; Campbell, J. D.; Krueger, J. I.; Vohs, K. D. Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 2003, 4 (1): 1–44. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26151640. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431 可免费查阅.</ref>、婚姻和人际关系的满意度<ref name="Orth 2014">Orth U.; Robbins R.W. The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2014, 23 (5): 381–87. S2CID 38796272. doi:10.1177/0963721414547414.</ref>以及犯罪行为。<ref name="Orth 20142">Orth U.; Robbins R.W. The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2014, 23 (5): 381–87. S2CID 38796272. doi:10.1177/0963721414547414.</ref> 自尊可以应用于特定属性或全局。心理学家通常将自尊视为一种持久的人格特征（自尊特质，英语：trait self-esteem），但也存在正常的短期变化（自尊状态，英语：state self-esteem）。自尊的同义词或近义词包括：自我价值<ref>Great Books Online – Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more. Bartleby.com. [11 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于25 January 2009）.</ref>和自我完整性等。这是学术界之间有争议的术语，因为有些人认为该概念不存在，并可透过外向性和内向性特征水平来更好地衡量。乔丹·彼得森和阿尔伯特·埃利斯是批评该概念最著名的两位心理学家。 <ref>Jordan B. Peterson on How to Build Confidence, Cultivate Inner Peace, & the Psychology of MONEY (Part 2). 7 April 2021 [2021-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2022-05-04）.</ref><ref name="Ellis, A. 2001">Ellis, A. (2001). Feeling better, getting better, staying better. Impact Publishers</ref>
理论[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
许多早期的理论表明，自尊是人类的基本需求或动机。美国心理学家亚伯拉罕·马斯洛 (Abraham Maslow) 将自尊纳入了他的需求层次理论。他描述了两种不同形式的“尊重”：以认可、成功和钦佩的形式获得他人尊重的需要，以及以自爱、自信、技能或才能的形式获得自尊的需要。<ref>Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality Third. New York: Harper & Row. 1987. ISBN 978-0060419875.</ref> 来自他人的尊重被认为比内在的自尊更脆弱，更容易失去。马斯洛认为，如果自尊需要得不到满足，个体就会被迫去寻求它，而无法成长和获得自我实现。马斯洛还指出，最健康的自尊表达“是表现出我们对他人应得的尊重，而不是名声、名声和奉承”。现代自尊理论探索了人类有动力保持高度自尊的原因。社会计量理论认为，自尊的进化是为了检查一个人在社会群体中的地位和接受程度。根据恐惧管理理论，自尊具有保护功能，可以减少对生死的焦虑。<ref>Greenberg, J. Understanding the vital human quest for self-esteem. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2008, 3 (1): 48–55. PMID 26158669. S2CID 34963030. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00061.x.</ref>
卡尔·罗杰斯 (Carl Rogers) 是人本主义心理学的倡导者，他认为许多人的问题根源在于他们鄙视自己，认为自己一文不值，无法被爱。这就是为什么罗杰斯相信无条件接受被治疗者的重要性，当这样做时，它可以提其自尊。<ref name="Bonet">José-Vicente Bonet. Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima {{#if:||（}}页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆{{#if:||）}}. 1997. Ed. Sal Terrae. Maliaño (Cantabria, España). {{#if:978-8429311334|[[{{#ifeq:{{safesubst:#switch:
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}}|ISBN]]{{#if:||{{{arg}}}}}}}参数错误：ISBN缺失。}}.</ref> 在治疗过程中，他无论如何都会给予积极的关注。<ref>Wickman S.A.; Campbell C. An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client-centered conversation with Gloria. Journal of Counseling & Development. 2003, 81 (2): 178–84. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00239.x.</ref> 事实上，自那时以来，自尊的概念在人本主义心理学中被视为每个人不可剥夺的权利，总结如下：
每个人，无一例外，就事实本身而言，都值得其他人无条件尊重；他值得尊重自己，也值得被尊重。<ref name="Bonet3">José-Vicente Bonet. Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima {{#if:||（}}页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆{{#if:||）}}. 1997. Ed. Sal Terrae. Maliaño (Cantabria, España). {{#if:978-8429311334|[[{{#ifeq:{{safesubst:#switch:
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在当代社会情境中的生涯发展历程[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
一个人的生活经历是自尊如何发展的主要来源。<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> 在孩子生命的早期，父母对自尊有重大影响，可以被认为是孩子将拥有的积极和消极经历的主要来源。<ref name="Raboteg 20142">Raboteg-Saric Z.; Sakic M. Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction, & happiness in adolescents. Applied Research in the Quality of Life. 2014, 9 (3): 749–65. S2CID 143419028. doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9268-0.</ref> 父母无条件的爱帮助孩子建立稳定的被关心和尊重的感觉。随著孩子长大，这些感觉会转化为对自尊的后续影响。<ref name="OlsenBrecklerWiggins">Olsen, J. M.; Breckler, S. J.; Wiggins, E. C. Social Psychology Alive First Canadian. Toronto: Thomson Nelson. 2008. ISBN 978-0176224523.</ref> 自尊心高的小学学生往往有民主的父母，他们是关心、支持孩子的成年人，他们为孩子设定明确的标准，并允许他们在决策中表达自己的意见。
尽管迄今为止的研究仅报告了温暖、支持性的养育方式（主要是权威和宽容）与具有高自尊的孩子之间的相关性，但这些养育方式很容易被认为对自尊发展具有某种因果关系。<ref name="Raboteg 2014">Raboteg-Saric Z.; Sakic M. Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction, & happiness in adolescents. Applied Research in the Quality of Life. 2014, 9 (3): 749–65. S2CID 143419028. doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9268-0.</ref><ref>Coopersmith, S. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem需要免费注册. New York: W. H. Freeman. 1967. ISBN 9780716709121.</ref><ref>Isberg, R. S.; Hauser, S. T.; Jacobson, A. M.; Powers, S. I.; Noam, G.; Weiss-Perry, B.; Fullansbee, D. Parental contexts of adolescent self-esteem: A developmental perspective. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1989, 18 (1): 1–23. PMID 24271601. S2CID 35823262. doi:10.1007/BF02139243.</ref><ref>Lamborn, S. D.; Mounts, N. S.; Steinberg, L.; Dornbusch, S. M. Patterns of Competence and Adjustment among Adolescents from Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful Families. Child Development. 1991, 62 (5): 1049–65. PMID 1756655. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01588.x.</ref> 有助于健康自尊的童年经历包括被倾听、被尊重地说话、获得适当的关注和喜爱、成就被承认、错误或失败被承认和接受。导致低自尊的经历包括受到严厉批评、身体、性或情感虐待、被忽视、嘲笑或戏弄，或一直被期望“完美”。<ref>"Self-Esteem." {{#if:||（}}页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆{{#if:||）}} Self-Esteem. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012.</ref>
在学龄期，学业成就是自尊发展的重要因素。持续取得成功或持续失败将对学生的个人自尊产生强烈影响。<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> 但是，学生在学校期间也可能会感到自卑。<ref>Crocker, J.; Sommers, S. R.; Luhtanen, R. K. Hopes Dashed and Dreams Fulfilled: Contingencies of Self-Worth and Graduate School Admissions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002, 28 (9): 1275–86. S2CID 143985402. doi:10.1177/01461672022812012.</ref> 例如，他们可能没有学业成就，或者他们生活在校外的麻烦环境中。像前面提到的问题，会导致青少年怀疑自己。社交经历是另一个影响自尊的重要因素。随著孩子们上学，他们开始理解和认识到自己和同学之间的差异。通过社会比较，孩子们可以评估他们在不同活动中的表现是比同学好还是差。这些比较在塑造孩子的自尊心和影响他们对自己的正面或负面感受方面发挥著重要作用。<ref>Butler, R. Age Trends in the Use of Social and Temporal Comparison for Self-Evaluation: Examination of a Novel Developmental Hypothesis. Child Development. 1998, 69 (4): 1054–73. PMID 9768486. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06160.x.</ref><ref>Pomerantz, E. M.; Ruble, D. N.; Frey, K. S.; Grenlich, F. Meeting Goals and Confronting Conflict: Children's Changing Perceptions of Social Comparison. Child Development. 1995, 66 (3): 723–38. PMID 7789198. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00901.x.</ref> 随著孩子们进入青春期，同伴的影响变得更加重要。青少年根据与亲密朋友的关系来评价自己。<ref>Thorne, A.; Michaelieu, Q. Situating Adolescent Gender and Self-Esteem with Personal Memories. Child Development. 1996, 67 (4): 1374–90. PMID 8890489. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01802.x.</ref> 朋友之间的成功关系对于儿童高度自尊的发展非常重要。社会接受带来自信并产生高自尊，而来自同龄人和孤独的拒绝带来自我怀疑并产生低自尊。<ref>Leary, M. R.; Baumeister, R. F. The Nature and Function of Self-Esteem: Sociometer Theory. Zanna, M. P. (编). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 32. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 2000: 1–62. ISBN 978-0120152322.</ref>
青春期表现出自尊的增加，并在青年和中年继续增加。从中年到老年会出现减少，对于它是小还是大的减少有不同的发现。变异的原因可能是由于老年时的健康、认知能力和社会经济地位的差异。男性和女性在自尊的发展方面没有发现差异。多项队列研究表明，由于教育中的成绩膨胀或社交媒体的存在等社会变化，几代人之间自尊的生命周期轨迹没有差异。<ref name="Orth 2014" />
高水平的掌握、低风险和更好的健康是预测更高自尊的方法。在性格方面，情绪稳定、外向、有责任心的人会有更高的自尊。<ref name="Orth 2014" /> 这些预测因素向我们展示了自尊具有类似特质的品质，可以随著时间的推移保持稳定，如个性和智力。<ref name="Orth 2014" /> 然而，这并不意味著它不能改变。<ref name="Orth 2014" /> 在当代美国社会，西班牙裔青少年的自尊心比黑人和白人同龄人略低，但到 30 岁时会略高。<ref>Erol, R. Y.; Orth, U. Self-Esteem Development From Age 14 to 30 Years: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011, 101 (3): 607–19. PMID 21728448. doi:10.1037/a0024299.</ref><ref>Maldonado L.; Huang Y.; Chen R.; Kasen S.; Cohen P.; Chen H. Impact of early adolescent anxiety disorders on self-esteem development from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2013, 53 (2): 287–292. PMC 3725205 可免费查阅. PMID 23648133. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.02.025.</ref> 与白人相比，非洲裔美国人在青春期和青年时期的自尊心增长得更快。然而，到了老年，他们的自尊心下降得更快。<ref name="Orth 2014" />
种类[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
高度自尊[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
拥有健康自尊水平的人：<ref>Adapted from Hamachek, D. E. Encounters with the Self需要免费注册. New York: Rinehart. 1971. ISBN 9780030777851.</ref>
- 坚信某些价值观和原则，即使遇到反对，也准备捍卫它们，感到足够安全，可以根据经验修改它们。<ref name="Bonet2">José-Vicente Bonet. Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima {{#if:||（}}页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆{{#if:||）}}. 1997. Ed. Sal Terrae. Maliaño (Cantabria, España). {{#if:978-8429311334|[[{{#ifeq:{{safesubst:#switch:
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|no |n |false |f |否 |0 = no | = no |¬ = no |yes |y |true |t |是 |1 = yes |#default = no
}}|yes||ISBN}}]] 978-8429311334{{#if:{{ safesubst:#if:1|978-8429311334}}|{{#ifeq:{{safesubst:#switch:
|no |n |false |f |否 |0 = no | = no |¬ = no |yes |y |true |t |是 |1 = yes |#default = no
}}|yes|{{safesubst:#switch:
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- 能够按照他们认为的最佳选择行事，相信自己的判断，当别人不喜欢他们的选择时不会感到内疚。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 不要浪费时间过度担心过去发生的事情，也不要担心未来可能发生的事情。他们从过去学习并计划未来，但尽情投入地活在当下。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 完全相信自己解决问题的能力，在失败和困难之后不会犹豫。他们在需要时向他人寻求帮助。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 认为自己在尊严上与他人平等，而不是低人一等，同时接受某些才能、个人声望或经济地位的差异。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 了解他们对他人来说是一个有趣且有价值的人，至少对与他们有友谊的人来说是这样。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 抵制操纵，只有在看起来合适和方便的情况下才与他人合作。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 承认并接受不同的内在感受和驱动力，无论是积极的还是消极的，只有在他们选择时才会向他人展示这些驱动力。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 能够享受各种各样的活动。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 对他人的感受和需要很敏感；尊重普遍接受的社会规则，不主张以牺牲他人为代价而繁荣的权利或愿望。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
- 当挑战出现时，可以努力寻找解决方案并表达不满，而不会贬低自己或他人。<ref name="KidsHealth">New, Michelle. Developing Your Child's Self-Esteem. KidsHealth. March 2012 [27 November 2012]. （原始内容存档于2012-11-23）.</ref>
安全与防御[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
一个人可以拥有高自尊并自信地保持自尊，而他们不需要其他人的保证来保持积极的自我看法，而其他具有防御性高自尊的人可能仍会在罗森伯格量表（Rosenberg self-esteem scale，缩写作RSES）上报告积极的自我评价，因为所有高自尊的人会这样做；然而，他们积极的自我看法是脆弱的，容易受到批评。防御性高自尊的人会将潜意识的自我怀疑和不安全感内化，导致他们对可能收到的任何批评做出非常消极的反应。这些人需要不断地从他人那里得到积极的反馈，以保持他们的自我价值感。反复表扬的必要性可能与自负、傲慢的行为有关，有时甚至与对质疑个人自我价值的任何人的攻击性和敌意情绪有关，这是受威胁的自负的一个例子。<ref>Jordan, C. H.; Spencer, S. J.; Zanna, M. P. 'I love me...I love me not': Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem and defensiveness. Spencer, S. J.; Fein, S.; Zanna, M. P.; Olsen, J. M. (编). Motivated social perception: The Ontario symposium 9. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2003: 117–45. ISBN 978-0805840360.</ref><ref>Jordan, C. H.; Spencer, S. J.; Zanna, M. P.; Hoshino-Browne, E.; Correll, J. Secure and defensive high self-esteem (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003, 85 (5): 969–78 [2021-12-15]. PMID 14599258. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-10-10）.</ref>
《教育心理学期刊》进行了一项研究，他们使用了 383 名马来西亚本科生参与五所公立大学的工作综合学习 (WIL) 课程的样本，以测试自尊与其他心理属性之间的关系，例如自我效能感和自我-信心。结果表明，自尊与自信心和自我效能感呈显著正相关，因为自尊高的学生在大学的表现优于自尊低的学生。结论是高等教育机构和雇主应该强调本科生自尊发展的重要性。<ref>Jaaffar, Amar Hisham; Ibrahim, Hazril Izwar; Rajadurai, Jegatheesan; Sohail, M. Sadiq. Psychological Impact of Work-Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Relation between Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence. International Journal of Educational Psychology. 2019-06-24, 8 (2): 188–213. ISSN 2014-3591. doi:10.17583/ijep.2019.3389 可免费查阅 （en-US）.</ref>
内隐、外显、自恋和威胁的自我主义[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
内隐自尊是指一个人以一种自发的、自动的或无意识的方式积极或消极地评价自己的倾向。它与外显自尊形成对比，外显自尊需要更有意识和反思的自我评价。外显自尊和内隐自尊都是自尊的亚型。
自恋是人们可能具有的一种性格，代表对自己的过度爱。它的特点是夸大了自我价值。在自恋测量（Robert Raskin发想出的40项是非测试题）中得分高的个人可能会选择对诸如“如果我统治世界，世界会变得更好”这样的陈述是正确的<ref>Barbara Krahe, The Social Psychology of Aggression (Psychology Press, 2013), 75.</ref>。自恋和自尊之间只有中等程度的相关性<ref>Sedikieds, C.; Rudich, E. A.; Gregg, A. P.; Kumashiro, M.; Rusbult, C. Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2004, 87 (3): 400–16 [2021-12-15]. PMID 15382988. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400. （原始内容存档于2023-08-02）.</ref>；也就是说，一个人可以有高自尊但低自恋，也可以是一个自负、令人讨厌的人，具有高自尊和高自恋。<ref>Narcissism vs. Authentic Self-Esteem. afterpsychotherapy.com. 17 January 2011 [22 October 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-04-07）.</ref>
受威胁的自我主义（英语：egotism）的特征是对威胁自恋者自我的批评的回应；他们经常以敌对和侵略性的方式作出反应。<ref name="BaumeisterSmartBoden1996">Baumeister, Roy F.; Smart, L.; Boden, J. Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review. 1996, 103 (1): 5–33. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1009.3747 可免费查阅. PMID 8650299. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5.</ref><ref>Morf, C. C.; Rhodewalk, F. Narcissism and self-evaluation maintenance: Explorations in object relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1993, 19 (6): 668–76. S2CID 145525829. doi:10.1177/0146167293196001.</ref><ref>Twenge, J. M.; Campbell, W. K. 'Isn't it fun to get the respect we're going to deserve?' Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2003, 29 (2): 261–72. PMID 15272953. S2CID 29837581. doi:10.1177/0146167202239051.</ref>
低的[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
低自尊可能由多种因素引起，包括遗传因素、外貌或体重、心理健康问题、社会经济地位、重大的情感（负面）经历、社会污名、同辈压力或欺凌。<ref>Jones FC. Low self esteem. Chicago Defender. 2003: 33. ISSN 0745-7014.</ref>
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- 强烈的自我批评和不满。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 对批评的过度敏感，对批评的怨恨和被攻击的感觉。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 长期的优柔寡断和对错误的过度恐惧。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 过分取悦和不愿取悦任何请愿者的意愿。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 完美主义，当没有达到完美时会导致沮丧。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 神经质的内疚，沉迷于或夸大过去错误的严重程度。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 没有任何近因的漂浮的敌意和普遍的防御性和易怒。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 悲观情绪和普遍的消极前景。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 嫉妒、反感或普遍的怨恨。<ref name="Bonet2" />
- 将暂时的挫折视为永久性的、无法忍受的情况。<ref name="KidsHealth" />
低自尊的人往往对自己很挑剔。有些人在评估自我价值时依赖于他人的认可和赞扬。其他人可能会根据成功来衡量他们的讨人喜欢程度：如果成功，其他人会接受自己，但如果失败则不会。患有慢性低自尊的人患精神障碍的风险更高；这种行为也与形成精神病症状密切相关。<ref>Warman DM, Lysaker PH, Luedtke B, Martin JM (2010) Self-esteem and delusionproneness.JNervMentDis.198:455–457.</ref><ref>Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Bashforth H, Garety P, Dunn G,Kuipers E (2006) Emotion and psychosis: Links between depression, self-esteem,negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations.Schizophr Res.86:181–188</ref><ref>Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis.Psychol Med.31:189–195.</ref><ref>Bentall RP, Kinderman P, Kaney S (1994) The self, attributional processes andabnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions.Behav Res Ther.32:331–341</ref><ref>Karatzias T, Gumley A, Power K, O'Grady M (2007) Illness appraisals and self-esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia.ComprPsychiatry.48:371–375.</ref><ref>Bradshaw W, Brekke JS (1999) Subjective experience in schizophrenia: Factorsinfluencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress.Am J Ortho-psychiatry.69:254–260.</ref><ref>Blairy S, Linotte S, Souery D, Papadimitriou GN, Dikeos D, Lerer B, Kaneva R,Milanova V, Serretti A, Macciardi F, Mendlewicz J (2004) Social adjust-ment and self-esteem of bipolar patients: A multicentric study.J Affect Disord.79:97–103</ref><ref>Bowins B, Shugar G (1998) Delusions and self-esteem.Can J Psychiatry.43:154–158.</ref>
疗法[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
元认知疗法（英语：Metacognitive therapy，缩写作MCT）、EMDR 技术、正念认知疗法（英语：Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy，缩写作MBCT）、理性情绪行为疗法（英语：Rational emotive behavior therapy，缩写作REBT）、认知行为疗法，以及特质和建构疗法（英语：trait and construct therapies）已被证明可以提高被治疗者的自尊。<ref name="ORCID 2021">-{R|ORCID. ORCID. 2021-08-31 [2021-09-07]. （原始内容存档于2021-10-10）.</ref>
特定领域的自尊[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
自尊涉及个人如何整体评价自己，而特定领域的自尊方面则涉及他们如何在各种相关的生活领域中评价自己。 自尊的这种功能上不同的方面可能包括社会、情感、身体相关、学校表现相关和创意艺术领域的自我评价。<ref name="Burger et al">Burger, C.; Bachmann, L. Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: A variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment.. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021, 18 (19): 10429. PMC 8508291 可免费查阅. PMID 34639731. doi:10.3390/ijerph181910429 可免费查阅. File:CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</ref><ref>Barbot B.; Safont-Mottay C.; Oubrayrie-Roussel N. Multidimensional scale of self-esteem (EMES-16): Psychometric evaluation of a domain-specific measure of self-esteem for French-speaking adolescents.. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 2019, 43 (5): 436–446 [2021-12-15]. S2CID 151135576. doi:10.1177/0165025418824996. （原始内容存档于2021-10-26）.</ref>
已发现它们可以预测与心理功能、健康、教育和工作相关的结果。<ref>Orth U.; Dapp L.C.; Erol R.Y.; Krauss S.; Luciano E.C. Development of domain-specific self-evaluations: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2021, 120 (1): 145–172 [2021-12-15]. PMID 33252972. S2CID 227244920. doi:10.1037/pspp0000378. （原始内容存档于2023-08-02）.</ref> 例如，社会领域的低自尊（即自我感知的社会能力）已被反复确定为欺凌受害的风险因素。<ref>Andreou E. Bully/victim problems and their association with coping behaviour in conflictual peer interactions among school-age children.. Educational Psychology. 2001, 21 (1): 59–66 [2021-12-15]. S2CID 143734781. doi:10.1080/01443410125042. （原始内容存档于2022-06-20）.</ref><ref name="Burger et al2">Burger, C.; Bachmann, L. Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: A variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment.. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021, 18 (19): 10429. PMC 8508291 可免费查阅. PMID 34639731. doi:10.3390/ijerph181910429 可免费查阅. File:CC-BY icon.svg Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</ref>
重要性[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
亚伯拉罕·马斯洛 (Abraham Maslow) 指出，除非人的本质核心被他人和自己从根本上接受、爱戴和尊重，否则心理健康是不可能的。自尊让人们更加自信、仁慈、乐观地面对生活，从而轻松实现目标和自我实现。<ref name="Branden">Nathaniel Branden. Cómo mejorar su autoestima {{#if:||（}}页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆{{#if:||）}}. 1987. Versión traducida: 1990. 1ª edición en formato electrónico: enero de 2010. Ediciones Paidós Ibérica. {{#if:978-8449323478|[[{{#ifeq:{{safesubst:#switch:
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自尊可能会让人们相信他们应该得到幸福。<ref name="Branden"/> 理解这一点是基本的，也是普遍有益的，因为积极自尊的发展提高了以尊重、仁慈和善意对待他人的能力，从而有利于丰富的人际关系并避免破坏性的人际关系。<ref name="Branden"/> 对于埃里希·弗洛姆 (Erich Fromm) 而言，爱他人和爱自己是不可替代的。相反，在所有有能力爱他人的人身上，都会发现一种爱自己的态度。自尊允许工作场所的创造力，并且是教师职业的一个特别关键的条件。<ref name="Miranda">Christian Miranda. La autoestima profesional: una competencia mediadora para la innovación en las prácticas pedagógicas 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2011-07-22.. Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación. 2005. Volume 3, number 1. PDF format.</ref>
José-Vicente Bonet 声称自尊的重要性是显而易见的，因为缺乏自尊并不是失去他人的尊重，而是自我拒绝。博内特声称这对应于重度抑郁症。<ref name="Bonet3" /> 弗洛伊德还声称，抑郁症患者“自尊心显著下降，自我严重衰落……他失去了自尊”。<ref>Sigmund Freud, On Metapsychology (PFL 11) pp. 254–56</ref>
《日惹原则》是一份关于国际人权法的文件，它致力于处理对 LGBT 人群的歧视态度，这种态度使他们的自尊心低落，容易受到侵犯人权的侵害，包括人口贩卖。<ref>The Yogyakarta Principles, Preamble and Principles 11</ref> 世界卫生组织在 2000 年出版的《预防自杀》中建议<ref>World Health Organization. Preventing suicide: A global imperative. World Health Organization – Mental Health. 2014: 92. （原始内容存档于September 5, 2014）.</ref>，加强学生的自尊对于保护儿童和青少年免受精神困扰和沮丧，使他们能够充分应对困难和压力的生活状况非常重要。<ref>Preventing Suicide, A resource for teachers and other school staff, WHO, Geneva, 2000 (PDF). who.int. [22 October 2017].{{#switch:¬
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}}{{#if:
|[{{#if:
|{{{pre-text}}}
}}{{#if:
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}}]|[{{#if: |-{zh:失效連結;zh-tw:失效連結;zh-cn:失效链接|{{#if:|永久失效链接|失效链接}}}}]
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除了增加幸福感之外，众所周知，与自尊心低的人相比，更高的自尊与更好的应对压力的能力和承担艰钜任务的可能性有关。<ref name="Schacter">Schacter, Daniel L.; Gilbert, Daniel T.; Wegner, Daniel M. Self Esteem需要免费注册. Psychology Second. New York: Worth. 2009. ISBN 978-0716752158.</ref>
批评与争议[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
错误尝试[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
对于自尊心低的人，任何积极的刺激都会暂时提升自尊。 因此，财产、性、成功或外貌都会产生自尊的发展，但这种发展充其量只是短暂的。<ref>Nathaniel Branden, The Six Pillars of Self-esteem (Bantam, 1995), 52. Also see Nathaniel Branden, How to Raise Your Self-Esteem: The Proven Action-Oriented Approach to Greater Self-Respect and Self-Confidence (Random House, 1988), 9. Spanish edition: Cómo mejorar su autoestima (Paidos, 2009).</ref> 这种通过积极刺激提高自尊的尝试会产生“繁荣或萧条”的模式。 “赞美和积极的反馈”会产生推动作用，但缺乏这种反馈会导致破产。 对于一个“自尊是有条件的”的人来说，不是“成功特别甜”，而是“失败是特别苦”。<ref name="psychologytoday.com">The Boom and Bust Ego. Psychology Today. [11 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于2023-08-02）.</ref>
积极与自尊[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
传统上把积极、主动、勇敢、情绪经历短暂（即俗称的神经大条，这种特质较不容易陷入负向情绪的困扰中，具备这种特质的人基本上就是乐观的人）、甚至是攻击性强等特质视为高自尊，与以上相反的特质则直接归类为低自尊。但这样的归类方式事实上十分武断。可能这种分类只适用于某些社会发展状态，例如像二十世纪上半叶，国际间战乱不断的社会环境。也可以说，当时对人类心理状态的研究只能从过去人类的行为归纳，如果社会发展到现今状态，这些归纳出来的理论往往已经不合用。
当今不论是心理学还是企业管理界，一般的说法仍相信，自尊与社会化、人际间的活跃度有关。高自尊的人会做出对社会有助益的行为，且能从其中发现自己的价值；而低自尊的人无法信任社会和群体，因而或离群索居、或做出暴力破坏者都有（有些人会将离群索居跟内向混淆，事实上内向或外向与自尊强度是无关的）。
有分外在和内在，外在是指在与人相处时、能主动的和人互动、建立关系；能适当的表达自己的感受、想法和需要；敢于提出请求、拒绝不合理的要求；能维护或争取自己该有的权益；能适当的表达正向或负向情绪；能适时的表达自己的想法、坚守自己的立场和原则等。内在指个人如何看待或对待自己，是否能以正向或积极的角度来看自己，这会决定对自己好坏的评价和信心的程度。一个自我肯定的人，对外能表现肯定的行为，对内能对自己采肯定的态度，而形成正向的自我意像或概念，对自己也会有较高的满意度。
自我感觉良好[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
‘自我感觉良好’这个词，是“安于现状、自我满足”的意思，经常被用于负面形容<ref>自我感觉良好. 部落客. [2010-06-13]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-08）.</ref>。美国某大学2005年做的一项全球自尊调查里将“自尊”定义为“自我能力和自我喜爱程度”，不免是将自尊误解为自我感觉的良好。<ref>全球自我感觉良好调查. 自由时报. 2005-10-16 [2010-06-13]. （原始内容存档于2009-06-07）.</ref>相关的概念更适合用自恋描述。
参看[编辑 | 编辑源代码]
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