思覺失調
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此{{#if:|{{#ifeq:none|left|章節|條目或其章節}}}}{{#if:|具有{{{reason}}}的問題,}}需要精通或熟悉{{#if:醫學|醫學{{#if:|、[[]]{{#if:|、[[]]}}}}|相關主題}}的編者參與及協助編輯。 (2022年4月11日) |
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| main = | other | #default = 使用醫學模板含有多種參數的頁面 }}}} 思覺失調(英語:Early Psychosis)<ref>Smart Patient Website - Early Psychosis. www21.ha.org.hk. [2022-10-12]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-14).</ref><ref>Schizophrenia中文譯名由「思覺失調症」更名為「思覺失調症」的歷史軌跡。. pinsoul. [2022-10-13]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-15) (en-US). </ref>是醫學術語<ref>思覺失調 | 常見精神疾病 | 思健醫務中心. 思健醫務中心 HealthyMind. [2022-10-12]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-13) (中文).</ref><ref>105年7月68期 - 國軍高雄總醫院-院刊內容.{{#switch:¬
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|#default = _IN:_i2=_sublen3={{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}_j4=u_min=Template:Min_CORE:slen:25_i={{#if:}||{{#ifexpr:({{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|1|0}} and {{#if:|1|0}})|{{#expr:Template:Min-{字词转换器深度越限(10){#expr:abs(-1)-1}}+{{#ifexpr:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}<0|-1|1}}}}|1}}}}_j=Template:Min_inv={{#ifexpr:{{#ifeq:{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}||0|{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}}}<0|yes|no}}_tchk={{#if:{{#if:|{{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|{{#if:|{{#ifexpr:((-+1)<>{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}) and (*<>0)|Error using {{[[{{#switch: |#default = Str mid | = {{#ifeq: | | Template:Str mid | Str mid }}
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|#default = _IN:_i2=_sublen3={{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}_j4=u_min=Template:Min_CORE:slen:25_i={{#if:}||{{#ifexpr:({{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|1|0}} and {{#if:|1|0}})|{{#expr:Template:Min-{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}+{{#ifexpr:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}<0|-1|1}}}}|1}}}}_j=Template:Min_inv={{#ifexpr:{{#ifeq:{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}||0|{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}}}<0|yes|no}}_tchk={{#if:{{#if:|{{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|{{#if:|{{#ifexpr:((-+1)<>{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}) and (*<>0)|Error using {{[[{{#switch: |#default = Str mid | = {{#ifeq: | | Template:Str mid | Str mid }}
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|[[Category:{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} }}带有失效链接的条目]]{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |{{#ifexist:Category:自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}}带有失效链接的条目| | }} }} }}{{#if:|}}{{#if: |[[Category:{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} }}]]{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |{{#ifexist:Category:自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}}| | }} }} }}{{#if:|}}{{#if: |[[Category:{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} }}]]{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}} |{{#ifexist:Category:自{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}}| | }} }} }}}}
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| talk = | user = | wikipedia = | image = | mediawiki = | template = {{#if:|{{#ifeq:{{{name}}}|思覺失調||{{#if:{{#iferror:{{#time:Y年n月|}}||{{#time:Y年n月|}}}}||}}}}}} | help = | category = | portal = | wikiproject = | other | #default = }} | }}
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}}{{#if:
|[{{#if: |{{{pre-text}}} }}{{#if: |{{{post-text}}} }}]|[{{#if: |-{zh:失效連結;zh-tw:失效連結;zh-cn:失效链接|{{#if:|永久失效連結|失效連結}}}}]
}}{{#if:|}}</ref>,是心智的異常狀態,為精神病(英語:Psychosis)<ref>psychosis - 精神病. terms.naer.edu.tw. [2022-10-16]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-16).</ref>的早期。描述一個人與現實失去聯繫<ref name="NIH2018QA">RAISE Questions and Answers. NIMH. [2020-04-24]. (原始內容存檔於2019-10-08).</ref>,屬於思覺失調症(英語:Schizophrenia)的症狀之一。但是一個人出現了思覺失調的症狀,不一定是思覺失調症。換句話說,一個人也可能在不是思覺失調症的情況下經歷思覺失調的症狀<ref>Psychosis vs. Schizophrenia: Understanding the Difference. Healthline. 2022-01-26 [2022-10-12]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-16) (English).</ref>。此外,如一個人經歷思覺失調的症狀,但持續時間少於一個月,會被診斷為「短暫性/急性思覺失調」(Acute schizophrenia-like psychotic disorder)。<ref>ICD-10 Version:2019. icd.who.int. [2023-09-23]. (原始內容存檔於2020-03-31).</ref><ref>Limited, Digital Candy Hong Kong. 甚麼是思覺失調?. Mind HK. [2023-09-23]. (原始內容存檔於2023-10-03) (中文(繁體)).</ref><ref>Henderson, Dr Roger. Everything you need to know about schizophrenia. Netdoctor. 2020-04-28 [2023-09-23] (British English).</ref>
思覺失調主要症狀:
- 幻聽、幻覺<ref name="HVM001">【 請使用「聽聲」取代「幻聽」,避免污名化 】. [2022-10-13]. (原始內容存檔於2022-07-07) (中文(臺灣)).</ref> – 聽聲者聽到、看到或感覺到身旁者沒有聽到、看到或感覺到的事情。
- 妄想 – 在現實環境中無充分的依據,且不被他人認同的強烈信念。
- 其他病徵還有語無倫次及不合時宜的行為舉止。
思覺失調有許多可能的成因,包含:
- 精神疾患。
- 藥物濫用。
- 睡眠剝奪。
- 某些身體疾病等情況<ref name="NIH2018QA" /><ref name="NHS2020-C">Psychosis - Causes. NHS. [2020-04-24]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-26).</ref>。
治療包含:
- 抗精神病藥。
- 心理諮商。
- 社會支持等<ref name="NIH2018QA" /><ref name="NHS2020-P">Psychosis. NHS. [2020-04-24]. (原始內容存檔於2018-10-15).</ref>。
要診斷精神疾患,應排除其他潛在的成因<ref name="NIH2018QA" /><ref>Cardinal, Rudolf N.; Bullmore, Edward T. The Diagnosis of Psychosis. Cambridge University Press. 2011-03-31: 279. ISBN 978-1-139-49790-9 (English).</ref>,尤其如果出現不典型的症狀<ref name="NHS2020-P" /><ref name="Sadock2015">Sadock, Benjamin J. Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry: Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry. Wolters Kluwer. 2015: 317 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9781469883755. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-22).</ref>。神經傳導物質多巴胺據信扮演重要角色<ref name="NHS2020-C" />。
定義[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
在精神疾病診斷與統計手冊的早期版本中,定義精神病為「現實感喪失」或「自我界限消失」<ref name="Arciniegas2015">Arciniegas, David B. Psychosis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2015, 21: 716.</ref>,導致日常生活功能下降。在國際疾病與相關健康問題統計分類第九版中,則使用當時傳統的二分法,區分精神病與精神官能症,並且刻意沒有給予詳細定義。而在這兩本手冊的現今版本中,則使用狹義的定義,指須有妄想、幻覺或兩者兼具的症狀,並視思考障礙為可能出現的相關症狀。當精神病的原因是精神疾患時,稱為原發性精神症,當原因是其他醫學情況時,稱為次發性精神症<ref name="Griswold2015">Griswold, Kim S.; Regno, Paula a. Del; Berger, Roseanne C. Recognition and Differential Diagnosis of Psychosis in Primary Care. American Family Physician. 2015-06-15, 91 (12) [2022-11-13]. (原始內容存檔於2023-03-03) (en-US). </ref>。
流行病學[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
任何年齡、性別、種族、生活水準或學歷的人士都有機會患病。在美國,精神病的終生盛行率約為3%<ref name=Griswold2015/>,其中約0.21%是由一般醫學情況所引起的<ref>Perälä, Jonna; Suvisaari, Jaana; Saarni, Samuli I.; Kuoppasalmi, Kimmo; Isometsä, Erkki; Pirkola, Sami; Partonen, Timo; Tuulio-Henriksson, Annamari; Hintikka, Jukka; Kieseppä, Tuula; Härkänen, Tommi. Lifetime Prevalence of Psychotic and Bipolar I Disorders in a General Population. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2007-01-01, 64 (1) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 17199051. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.1.19. (原始內容存檔於2021-10-01) (English).</ref>。思覺失調症及第一型躁鬱症的終生盛行率則各約1%<ref>Merikangas, Kathleen R.; Pato, Michael. Recent developments in the epidemiology of bipolar disorder in adults and children: Magnitude, correlates, and future directions.. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 2009-06, 16 (2). ISSN 1468-2850. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01152.x (English).</ref>。
病徵[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
妄想[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
自古以來,瘋狂的核心特徵就是妄想。{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
——{{#if:|,出自}}}}
妄想是堅信不疑的錯誤信念,縱使有強烈相反證據也無法動搖,並且不在所屬文化中流行<ref name="Sadock2015" />。要將無法合理確認的信念視為妄想時,應特別謹慎,例如文化與宗教的領域。一群人所共同持有的信念不是妄想,例如相信幽浮的存在<ref name="Hopkins2020">Barta, Patrick. Delusions. Johns Hopkins Psychiatry Guide. [2020-04-24]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-22).</ref>。妄想在思覺失調症中的盛行率至少90%,在躁鬱症中則有50%。在第五版的精神疾病診斷與統計手冊(DSM-5)中,定義怪異妄想為全然不可能的信念,不被所處文化的同儕所理解,也不是日常生活經驗所導出的體悟<ref name="DSM5">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association. 2013.</ref>,例如相信自己的器官已被換成別人的,還沒有留下任何疤痕。
妄想可依內容主題分為被害妄想、愛戀妄想、誇大妄想、嫉妒妄想、身體妄想等。其中最常見的被害妄想,牽涉到個人相信本身被人謀害、欺騙、監視、跟蹤、下毒、惡意毀謗、騷擾或是阻礙其追隨長遠目標的情況<ref name="DSM5" />。嫉妒妄想主題是伴侶不貞。[[:{{#if:妄想性錯認症候群|妄想性錯認症候群|Delusional misidentification syndrome}}|{{#if:妄想性錯認症候群|妄想性錯認症候群|Delusional misidentification syndrome}}]]患者的妄想主題都與人事物的身份被改變有關,例如卡普格拉症候群則是患者相信親友被人冒名頂替,外表一模一樣但是內在卻不同;[[:{{#if:佛列哥利症候群|佛列哥利症候群|Fregoli syndrome}}|{{#if:佛列哥利症候群|佛列哥利症候群|Fregoli syndrome}}]]的患者認為不同的人皆是同一人所裝扮而成的<ref name="Arciniegas2015" />。
與妄想相對比,[[:{{#if:超價觀念|超價觀念|Overvalued idea}}|{{#if:超價觀念|超價觀念|Overvalued idea}}]]則是不合理的執著信念,可被理解且未達堅信的程度<ref name="Arciniegas2015" />,例如在身體臆形症患者所認為自身外觀缺陷的念頭<ref>Matorin, Anu A; Shah, Asim A; Ruiz, Pedro. 8 Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders. Sadock, Virginia A; Sadock, Benjamin J; Ruiz, Pedro (編). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry 10th. Wolters Kluwer. 2017. THINKING DISTURBANCES, Thought Content, Disturbances in Thought Contents. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.</ref>,或者當懷疑伴侶不貞的念頭可以被相反證據所說服時,不應視為妄想<ref>Kinirons, Mark (編). French's Index of Differential Diagnosis, 1 An A-Z. CRC Press. 2011 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9781444128703. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-22).</ref>。當錯誤信念牽涉到價值判斷時,只有當該判斷極端到不可置信時才可以被視為妄想。虛談症也不是妄想,那是指無意欺瞞的編造記憶,通常為自傳性質,講述時非常相信,但卻時常隨即忘記<ref name="Arciniegas2015" />。
幻覺[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
根據法國精神科組織之父[[:{{#if:吉恩·埃斯基羅爾|吉恩·埃斯基羅爾|Jean-Étienne Esquirol}}|{{#if:吉恩·埃斯基羅爾|吉恩·埃斯基羅爾|Jean-Étienne Esquirol}}]]醫師的定義,幻覺為「沒有刺激來源的知覺」<ref>Freudenreich, Oliver. Psychotic Disorders: A Practical Guide. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. ISBN 9780781785433.</ref>。沒有病識感的幻覺才是精神症的症狀<ref name="Arciniegas2015" />,相對於偏頭痛預兆時所出現的視幻覺,偏頭痛病人通常知道該幻覺並非真實。幻覺可能牽涉五官中任何一個感官,以不同形式出現,可以是簡單的感受(例如光線、顏色、聲音、味道、氣味)或是複雜仔細的經驗(看見形體、聽見語音),通常具有生動且無法控制的特性<ref name="DSM5" />。其中,幻聽是最常見且顯著的一種形式,所聽到的聲音可能談及某些人,甚至是好幾個假想的角色中的對話。[[:{{#if:小人國幻覺|小人國幻覺|Lilliputian hallucinations}}|{{#if:小人國幻覺|小人國幻覺|Lilliputian hallucinations}}]]使人感到東西看起來比實際的或大或小忽遠忽近,則較常出現在腦病變患者身上<ref name="Sadock Psychosis">Lewis S, Escalona R, Keith S. Phenomenology of Schizophrenia. Sadock V, Sadock B, Ruiz P (編). Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. Wolters Kluwer.</ref>。
錯覺與幻覺並不同,那是對真實刺激的錯誤解讀。既視感也非幻覺<ref name="Arciniegas2015" />。
思想及言語紊亂[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
談話內容無意義的、急迫、缺乏主題、雜亂無章、語無倫次,不切實際以致別人難以理解。
治療[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
思覺失調可用藥物治療及心理治療,藥物治療主要用作減退症狀、由症狀帶來的緊張、不安及困擾。家人應持續監察患者情況,小心其濫用藥物等的行為<ref name=":2">思覺失調的症狀治療與康復. [2012-05-09]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-06).</ref>。
有些新的藥物及療法讓患者不一定需要入院接受治療,只需定期到門診接受評估。即使需要住院治療,其留醫時間因為新的藥物以及療法亦可以儘量縮短 。每個患者的康復過程和速度都會有名有分別;有些人可在很短的時間便可康復;而有些人需要較長的時間。在症狀未完全受到控制前,有些患者會感到困擾和沮喪,擔心自己不能完全康復,以及不知如何去面對未來的日子。在這關鍵的時候,家人和朋友應該給予支持和鼓勵,協助他們面對難關,使他們相信疾病是可以治療的。
病發過程[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
- 先兆期
這階段難以被察覺和並不明顯。症狀包括焦慮、失眠、思想難以集中、多疑和社交退縮。
- 急性期
這階段會有較明顯的症狀,例如思想及言語紊亂、幻覺和妄想。
- 第三階段 康復期
患者可能因接受治療而使狀況改善,但無法恢復至原先狀態。 正性症狀通常於此一階段減輕許多,但負性症狀卻大多持續存在著。
病因[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
正常狀態[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
在正常人身上偶爾也會有短暫的幻覺出現<ref name="Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis">Bullmore, Edward T. The diagnosis of psychosis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-16484-9. OCLC 671710663.</ref>,原因如下:
- [[:{{#if:剛睡醒|剛睡醒|hypnopompic}}|{{#if:剛睡醒|剛睡醒|hypnopompic}}]]或[[:{{#if:即將睡著|即將睡著|Hypnagogic}}|{{#if:即將睡著|即將睡著|Hypnagogic}}]]時,出現的聽幻覺或視幻覺完全正常<ref name="Ohayon_et_al_1996">Ohayon MM, Priest RG, Caulet M, Guilleminault C. Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: pathological phenomena?. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 1996-10, 169 (4): 459–67. PMID 8894197. doi:10.1192/bjp.169.4.459.</ref>
- 喪慟時,出現離世親人的幻覺<ref name="Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis" />
- 嚴重的睡眠剝奪<ref name="sleep_dep1">Sharma V, Mazmanian D. Sleep loss and postpartum psychosis. Bipolar Disorders. 2003-04, 5 (2): 98–105. PMID 12680898. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.2003.00015.x.</ref><ref name="sleep_dep2">Chan-Ob T, Boonyanaruthee V. Meditation in association with psychosis. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 1999-09, 82 (9): 925–30. PMID 10561951.</ref><ref name="sleep_dep3">Devillières, P.; Opitz, M.; Clervoy, P.; Stephany, J. Delusion and sleep deprivation. L'Encephale. 1996-05, 22 (3) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0013-7006. PMID 8767052. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 壓力<ref>Gispen-de Wied, Christine C. Stress in schizophrenia: an integrative view. European Journal of Pharmacology. Festschrift David de Wied. 2000-09-29, 405 (1): 375–384. ISSN 0014-2999. PMID 11033342. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00567-7.</ref>
精神性[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
原發性精神疾病包括<ref name="DSM5" /><ref name="ICD-10">World Health Organization, The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines (CDDG) {{#if:||(}}頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館{{#if:||)}}, 1992.</ref>:
- 思覺失調症與[[:{{#if:類思覺失調症|類思覺失調症|schizophreniform disorder}}|{{#if:類思覺失調症|類思覺失調症|schizophreniform disorder}}]]
- 情緒性精神疾患中,例如鬱症、躁鬱症中,鬱症階段時出現被害或自責妄想與幻覺,或是在躁症發作時經歷誇大妄想
- 情感思覺失調症,同時出現情緒障礙症發作和思覺失調症的症狀
- [[:{{#if:短暫精神病症|短暫精神病症|brief psychotic disorder}}|{{#if:短暫精神病症|短暫精神病症|brief psychotic disorder}}]]
- 妄想症
- [[:{{#if:慢性幻覺性精神症|慢性幻覺性精神症|chronic hallucinatory psychosis}}|{{#if:慢性幻覺性精神症|慢性幻覺性精神症|chronic hallucinatory psychosis}}]]
也可以出現在下列疾患中<ref name="Cardinal_2011_diagnosis_psychosis" />:
- 分裂性人格障礙
- 某些人格障礙遭遇壓力時(包括妄想型人格障礙症、孤僻型人格障礙症、邊緣型人格障礙症)
- 創傷後壓力症候群
- 二聯性精神病
- 有些強迫症患者
- 解離性障礙<ref>Shibayama, Masatoshi. [Differential diagnosis between dissociative disorders and schizophrenia]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi = Psychiatria Et Neurologia Japonica. 2011, 113 (9) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0033-2658. PMID 22117396. (原始內容存檔於2023-03-31).</ref>
生理性[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
- 神經紊亂
- 腦癌<ref name="Brain_tumor">Lisanby, null; Kohler, null; Swanson, null; Gur, null. Psychosis Secondary to Brain Tumor. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 1998-01, 3 (1) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 1084-3612. PMID 10085187. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-19).</ref>
- 退化性癡呆症<ref name="DLB">McKeith, Ian G. Dementia with Lewy bodies. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2002-02, 180 (2). ISSN 0007-1250. PMID 11823325. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.2.144 (English).</ref>
- 多發性硬化症<ref name="multiple_sclerosis">Rodríguez-Gómez, D.; Gónzalez-Vázquez, E.; Pérez-Carral, O. Acute psychosis as the presenting symptom of multiple sclerosis. Revista De Neurologia. 2005-08, 41 (4) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0210-0010. PMID 16075405. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-19).</ref>
- 結節病<ref name="Sarcoidosis">Bona, Joseph R.; Fackler, Sondralyn M.; Fendley, Morris J.; Nemeroff, Charles B. Neurosarcoidosis as a Cause of Refractory Psychosis: A Complicated Case Report. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998-08, 155 (8). ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 9699702. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.8.1106 (English).</ref>
- 老人癡呆症<ref>Lesser, Jary M.; Hughes, Susan. Psychosis-related disturbances. Psychosis, agitation, and disinhibition in Alzheimer's disease: definitions and treatment options. Geriatrics. 2006-12, 61 (12) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 1936-5764. PMID 17184138. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-19).</ref>
- 帕金森氏症<ref name=":3">Goldman, Jennifer G.; Holden, Samantha. Treatment of Psychosis and Dementia in Parkinson’s Disease. Current Treatment Options in Neurology. 2014-03, 16 (3). ISSN 1092-8480. PMC 3994190 可免費查閱. PMID 24464490. doi:10.1007/s11940-013-0281-2 (English).</ref>
- 多巴胺分泌異常
- 電解物質紊亂
- 低鈣血症<ref name="Rossman_1956">Rossman, P. L.; Vock, R. M. Postpartum tetany and psychosis due to hypocalcemia. California Medicine. 1956-09, 85 (3) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0008-1264. PMC 1531921 可免費查閱. PMID 13356186. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 高鈣血症<ref name="Rosenthal_et_al_1997">Rosenthal, M.; Gil, I.; Habot, B. Primary hyperparathyroidism: neuropsychiatric manifestations and case report. The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences. 1997, 34 (2) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0333-7308. PMID 9231574. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 高鈉血症<ref name="Jana_1973">Jana, D. K.; Romano-Jana, L. Hypernatremic psychosis in the elderly: case reports. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 1973-10, 21 (10) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0002-8614. PMID 4729012. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1973.tb01212.x. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 低血鈉症<ref name="Haensch_et_al_1996">Haensch, C. A.; Hennen, G.; Jörg, J. [Reversible exogenous psychosis in thiazide-induced hyponatremia of 97 mmol/l]. Der Nervenarzt. 1996-04, 67 (4) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0028-2804. PMID 8684511. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 低血鉀症<ref name="Hafez_et_al_1984">Hafez, H.; Strauss, J. S.; Aronson, M. D.; Holt, C. Hypokalemia-induced psychosis in a chronic schizophrenic patient. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 1984-06, 45 (6) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0160-6689. PMID 6725222. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
- 低血鎂症<ref name="Konstantakos_2006">Hypomagnesemia: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology. 2022-07-19 [2022-11-13]. (原始內容存檔於2019-07-24).</ref>
- [[:{{#if:高血鎂症|高血鎂症|Hypermagnesemia}}|{{#if:高血鎂症|高血鎂症|Hypermagnesemia}}]]<ref name="Velasco_et_al_1999">Velasco, P. J.; Manshadi, M.; Breen, K.; Lippmann, S. Psychiatric aspects of parathyroid disease. Psychosomatics. 1999-11, 40 (6) [2022-11-13]. ISSN 0033-3182. PMID 10581976. doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(99)71186-2. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-13).</ref>
各別地域[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
香港[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
2001年香港醫院管理局啟動的一項專為early psychosis人士設立的服務,為消除歧視,特別創立了思覺失調這個新的中文醫學名詞<ref>思覺失調 – 思覺基金. [2022-10-13]. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-13) (中文(香港)).</ref>。同年,香港醫院管理局也開始籌辦一個醫療服務,目的是要針對及早治療精神症患者,減輕其病情。於是一群精神科醫生計劃有策略地向大眾宣傳及教育有關思覺失調症、妄想症、躁狂抑鬱症。考慮到這些早期症狀,有可能以心理學的角度及少量鎮靜劑治療。
據2018年醫管局數字顯示,香港思覺失調患者超過4萬人<ref>思覺失調患者拒絕求診 透過教練服務助其家人. The Companions 匡仁心理輔導. 2019-07-01 [2019-08-09]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-22) (中文(繁體)).</ref>。
參見[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
參考文獻[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
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外部連結[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
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- 含有非數字formatnum參數的頁面
- 含有受損文件連結的頁面
- 有腳本錯誤的頁面
- 需要清理Redirect2舊式用法的頁面
- 模板中使用無效日期參數的條目
- 所有需要專家關注的頁面
- 使用小型訊息框的頁面
- 需要醫學專家關注的頁面
- 其他需要專家關注的頁面
- 包含醫學聲明的條目
- CS1English來源 (en)
- 缺少維基數據的醫學條目
- 使用醫學模板含有多種參數的頁面
- 含有非中文內容的條目
- 引文格式1維護:未識別語文類型
- 需要檢查替代引用的模板
- 錯誤使用替換引用的頁面
- 在模板中使用無效日期參數的條目
- 包含缺少日期的清理標記的模板
- 條目有永久失效的外部連結
- CS1British English來源 (en-gb)
- 在外部連結中引用參考資料的條目
- 含有維基數據不存在的VIAF
- VIAF與維基數據不同
- 醫學
- 精神病
- 心理學
- 精神病理學