需求层次理论

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File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory's chinese translation.png
马斯洛的需求层次结构通常被以类似这样的金字塔图像呈现,最基本的需求位于其底部<ref>Render, Joshua. Abraham Maslow’s Expanded Hierarchy of Needs. Agile-Mercurial. 2019-06-20 [2023-03-30] (English). </ref>

需求层次理论是心理学家亚伯拉罕·马斯洛在1943年发表于《心理学评论》期刊的论文〈人类动机的理论〉(英语:{{#switch:en

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}})中提出的心理学观点。<ref>Maslow, Abraham H. (1943). "A theory of human motivation". Psychological Review. 50 (4): 370–396. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.334.7586. doi:10.1037/h0054346. hdl:10983/23610. ISSN 0033-295X. OCLC 1318836. Archivedfrom the original on September 14, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2007 – via psychclassics.yorku.ca.</ref> 马斯洛随后将这个想法扩展到包括他对人类天生好奇心的观察。 他的理论与许多其他人类发展心理学理论相似,其中一些理论侧重于描述人类成长的阶段。 该理论是一种分类系统,旨在反映社会的普遍需求作为其基础,然后再发展到更多的后天情感。<ref name=":0">Deckers, Lambert (2018). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. Routledge Press. ISBN 9781138036338.</ref> 需求层次分为缺陷需求和增长需求,理论中涉及的两个关键主题是个人主义和需求优先化。 虽然该理论通常在插图中显示为金字塔,但马斯洛本人从未创建金字塔来表示需求层次。<ref>Kaufman, Scott Barry; Bridgman, Todd; Cummings, Stephen; Ballard, John (April 23, 2019). "Who Created Maslow's Iconic Pyramid?". Beautiful Minds. Scientific American Blog Network. New York City: Springer Nature America. ISSN 0036-8733.</ref><ref>Bridgman, Todd; Cummings, Stephen; Ballard, John. Who Built Maslow’s Pyramid? A History of the Creation of Management Studies’ Most Famous Symbol and Its Implications for Management Education. Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2019-03, 18 (1) [2023-03-30]. ISSN 1537-260X. doi:10.5465/amle.2017.0351. (原始内容存档于2023-08-13) (English). </ref> 需求层次是一种心理学概念,也是一种评估工具,尤其是在教育、医疗保健和社会工作方面。<ref>Poston, Bob (August 2009). "An Exercise in Personal Exploration: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs" (PDF). The Surgical Technologist. Association of Surgical Technologists. 308: 348.</ref> 层次结构仍然是社会学研究领域的一个流行框架。<ref>Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business. BBC News. 2013-08-31 [2023-03-30]. (原始内容存档于2023-07-19) (British English). </ref><ref>Freitas, Frances Anne; Leonard, Lora J. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and student academic success. Teaching and Learning in Nursing. 2011-01-01, 6 (1). ISSN 1557-3087. doi:10.1016/j.teln.2010.07.004 (English). </ref>

此外,需求层次用于研究人类如何内在地参与行为动机。 马斯洛使用“生理”、“安全”、“归属感和爱”、“社会需求”或“尊重”、“自我实现”和“超越”等术语来描述人类需求和动机通常移动的模式。 这意味着,根据该理论,为了在下一阶段产生动机,每个先前阶段都必须由个人满足。 层次结构已被用来解释努力和动机在人类行为的背景下是如何相关的。 这些单独的级别中的每一个都包含一定数量的内部感觉,必须满足这些内部感觉才能使个人完成其层次结构。<ref name=":0" /> 马斯洛层次结构中的目标是达到自我实现的水平或阶段。<ref>Wills, Evelyn; McEwen, Melanie (2014). Theoretical basis for nursing. ISBN 9781451190311. OCLC 857664345.</ref>

尽管被广泛使用和研究,马斯洛的需求层次理论缺乏确凿的支持证据,该理论的有效性在学术界仍然存在争议。<ref>Lester, David. Measuring Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Psychological Reports. August 2013, 113 (1): 15–17. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 24340796. S2CID 35870176. doi:10.2466/02.20.pr0.113x16z1. </ref><ref>{{

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|Template:Citation/patent |Fallatah, Rodwan Hashim Mohammed; Syed, Jawad, A Critical Review of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia (Cham: Springer International Publishing), November 30, 2017: 19–59 [April 30, 2022], ISBN 978-3-319-67740-8, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67741-5_2 

}}</ref><ref name=":3">Villarica, H. Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness. The Atlantic. August 17, 2011 [March 9, 2017]. (原始内容存档于November 21, 2011). </ref><ref name=":4">Tay, L.; Diener, E. Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011, 101 (2): 354–365. PMID 21688922. doi:10.1037/a0023779. </ref> 对已被修改为该理论的更新版本的原始理论的一种批评是,原始等级制度规定必须完全满足和实现较低层次,然后才能进行更高层次的追求; 有证据表明水平不断相互重叠。<ref name=":0" /> 其他批评包括性别在等级制度中的位置、理论中的个人主义假设,以及缺乏对文化和资源可用性的区域差异的考虑。

理论内容[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

个人是一个统一的、有组织的个体,个人的绝大多数欲望和冲动是相互关联的。驱使人类的是若干始终不变的、遗传的、本能的需求,这些需求不仅仅是生理的,还有心理的,他们是人类天性中固有的东西,文化不能扼杀它们,只能抑制它们。人类的需求是以层次的形式出现的,由低级的需求开始,逐级向上发展到高级层次的需求。当一组需求得到满足时,这组需求就不再成为激励因素了。

基本需求的特性定义为:缺少它会引起疾病;有了它不会得病;恢复它可以治愈疾病;在某种非常复杂的、自由选择的情况下,丧失它的人更愿意去寻求它,而不是寻求其他的满足;在一个健康人身上,它一般是不产生作用的,而是处于一种潜伏的状态。

在社会中有许多人,他们的各项基本需求只可能满足其中的一部分。在人们的需求层次的满足中,应有一个比较确切的描述,即从较低的层次逐级向上,满足程度的百份比逐级减少。

需求各层次,决不是一种刚性的结构,所谓层次,并没有截然的界限,层次与层次之间是相互叠合,互相交叉的,随着某一项需求的强度逐渐降低,另一项需求将逐渐上升。此外,可能有些人的需求始终维持在较低的层次上,而没有向上一层次发展的机会。

各项需求的先后顺序,不一定适合于每一个人,即使两个行业相同的人,也并不见得有同样的需求,正所谓世界上没有两片同样的叶子。

层次理论最大的作用在于,它指出了每个人都有需求。身为主管人员,为了激励下属,必须要了解其下属要满足的是什么需求。不论主管人员采取的是何种途径,其措施总是以他对下属的需求与满足的假定为基础。<ref>宋学军‧海鸽文化出版社图书有限公司‧一次读完28本管理学经典‧2006年9月1日‧台北‧ISBN 978-986-7011-23-7</ref>

需求层次理论是解释人格的重要理论,也是解释动机的重要理论。其提出个体成长的内在动力是动机。而动机是由多种不同层次与性质的需求所组成的,而各种需求间有高低层次与顺序之分,每个层次的需求与满足的程度,将决定个体的人格发展境界。需求层次理论将人的需求划分为五个(六个)层次,由低到高,并分别提出激励措施,其理论的一个基本假设就是“人是一种追求完全需求的动物”(wanting animals)<ref>Denhardt, Robert B. Managing human behavior in Public and Non-profit organizations. California, U.S.A: SAGE Publications, Inc. : 148–149. ISBN 9781412956673 (English). </ref>。

生理需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

生理需求(physiological needs),是级别最低、最急迫的需求,如:食物、水、空气、睡眠。

  • 未满足生理需求的特征:什么都不想,只想让自己活下去,思考能力、道德观明显变得脆弱。例如:当一个人极需求食物时,会不择手段的抢夺食物。人民在战乱时,是不会排队领面包的。假设人为报酬而工作,以生理的需求来激励下属。
  • 激励措施:增加工资、改善劳动条件、给予更多的业余时间和空间休息、提高福利待遇。

安全需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

安全需求({{#switch:en

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|jp|jap = safety needs模板參數錯誤:日文請使用ja
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|kp = safety needs模板參數錯誤:朝鮮文請使用kokor
|po = safety needs模板參數錯誤:波蘭文請使用plpol
|sp = safety needs模板參數錯誤:西班牙文請使用esspa
|cz = safety needs模板參數錯誤:捷克文請使用cscze
|kz = safety needs模板參數錯誤:哈薩克文請使用kkkaz
|dk = safety needs模板參數錯誤:丹麥文請使用da
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}}),同样属于较低层的需求,其中包括对人身安全、生活稳定以及免遭痛苦、威胁或疾病、身体健康以及有自己的财产等与自身安全感有关的事情。

  • 缺乏性安全感的特征:感到自己对身边的事物受到威胁,觉得这世界是不公平或是危险的。认为一切事物都是危险的、而变的紧张、徬徨不安、认为一切事物都是“恶”的。例如:一个孩子,在学校被同学欺负、受到老师不公平的对待,而开始变得不相信社会,变得不敢表现自己、不敢拥有社交生活(因为他认为社交是危险的),借此来保护自身安全。一个成人,工作不顺利,薪水微薄,养不起家人,而变得自暴自弃,每天利用喝酒、吸烟来寻找短暂的安逸感。
  • 激励措施:强调规章制度、职业保障、福利待遇,并保护员工不致失业,提供医疗保险失业保险和退休福利、避免员工收到双重的指令而混乱。

爱和归属的需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

爱和归属的需求({{#switch:en

|zh|gan|zh-yue = Love and belonging needs
|jp|jap = -{Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:日文請使用ja
|gr = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:希臘文請使用elgre
|kp = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:朝鮮文請使用kokor
|po = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:波蘭文請使用plpol
|sp = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:西班牙文請使用esspa
|cz = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:捷克文請使用cscze
|kz = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:哈薩克文請使用kkkaz
|dk = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:丹麥文請使用da
|unicode|ipa = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:請檢查更正引用語言代碼
|zh-classical = Love and belonging needs模板參數錯誤:文言文請使用zh-lzhlzh
|#default = Love and belonging needs}}{{#switch:en
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 | hide = 
 | #default  = 
   {{#ifeq: h0#384!5nea+w9 |  [[Category:含有{{#switch:en
 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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|#default = _IN:_i2=_sublen3={{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}_j4=u_min=Template:Min_CORE:slen:27_i={{#if:}||{{#ifexpr:({{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|1|0}} and {{#if:|1|0}})|{{#expr:Template:Min-{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}+{{#ifexpr:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}<0|-1|1}}}}|1}}}}_j=Template:Min_inv={{#ifexpr:{{#ifeq:{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}||0|{{#expr:abs(−1)−1}}}}<0|yes|no}}_tchk={{#if:{{#if:|{{#if:{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}|{{#if:|{{#ifexpr:((-+1)<>{{#expr:abs(-1)-1}}) and (*<>0)|Error using {{[[{{#switch: 
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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
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   }}
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}},常称为“社交需求”),属于较高层的需求,如:对友谊爱情以及隶属关系的需求。

  • 缺乏社交需求的特征:因为没有感受到身边人的关怀,而认为自己没有价值活在这世界上。例如:一个没有受到父母关怀的青少年,认为自己在家庭中没有价值,所以在学校交朋友,无视道德观和理性地积极地寻找朋友或是同类。譬如说:青少年为了让自己融入社交圈中,为别人做牛做马,甚至吸烟,恶作剧等。
  • 激励措施:提供同事间社交往来机会,支持与赞许员工寻找及建立和谐温馨的人际关系,开展有组织的体育比赛和集体聚会。

尊严需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

尊严需求({{#switch:en

|zh|gan|zh-yue = esteem needs
|jp|jap = -{esteem needs模板參數錯誤:日文請使用ja
|gr = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:希臘文請使用elgre
|kp = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:朝鮮文請使用kokor
|po = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:波蘭文請使用plpol
|sp = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:西班牙文請使用esspa
|cz = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:捷克文請使用cscze
|kz = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:哈薩克文請使用kkkaz
|dk = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:丹麥文請使用da
|unicode|ipa = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:請檢查更正引用語言代碼
|zh-classical = esteem needs模板參數錯誤:文言文請使用zh-lzhlzh
|#default = esteem needs}}{{#switch:en
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 | hide = 
 | #default  = 
   {{#ifeq: h0#384!5nea+w9 |  [[Category:含有{{#switch:en
 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
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 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
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 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
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 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
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 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
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}}),属于较高层的需求,如:成就、名声、地位和晋升机会等。尊严需求既包括对成就或自我价值的个人感觉,也包括他人对自己的认可与尊重。

  • 无法满足尊严需求的特征:变得很爱面子,或是很积极地用行动来让别人认同自己,也很容易被虚荣所吸引。例如:利用暴力来证明自己的强悍。
  • 激励措施:公开奖励和表扬,强调工作任务的艰钜性以及成功所需求的高超技巧,颁发荣誉奖章、在公司刊物发表文章表扬、优秀员工光荣榜。

认知需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

认知需求是人类需要和动机之一。泛指个体对事物的追寻、认知、了解的内在动力,如求知欲、好奇心等。

  • 中文名 认知需求
  • 外文名 cognitive need

(1)泛指个体对事物的追寻、认知、了解的内在动力,如求知欲、好奇心等。

(2)美国人格学家默里(Murray,H.A.)提出人的28种需求之一,即知的需求(need for under-standing),指凡事好问,对新奇事物非常有兴趣,喜欢探讨问题,爱好钻研抽象理论知识。

(3)美国人本主义心理学家马斯洛的需要模式中一个心理需要或成长需要的高级层次,指个体在基本需要满足后产生的认知需要,即人具有解决疑难和理解问题的欲望,探索各种事物的需求。认知需要对人满足低级需要,特别是最高级的自我实现需要都是必须的。一旦认知需要受阻,人不但难以有所作为,而且会处于变态心理状态,失去健康幸福和人生价值。

审美需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

审美需求是马斯洛需求中的其中一个需求。

马斯洛关于人类实现愿望和要求中对审美的需求有下列四种:对称、井然有序、外观美、平衡。

审美是一种内在感受,是心灵活动过程中对事物的感觉。这里提出的审美需求针对人类而言,就是在生活过程中对事物的感受。

审美是一种内在感受,是心灵活动过程中对事物的感觉。

这里提出的审美需求针对人类而言,就是在生活过程中对事物的感受。

自我实现需求[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

自我实现需求({{#switch:en

|zh|gan|zh-yue = need for self-actualization
|jp|jap = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:日文請使用ja
|gr = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:希臘文請使用elgre
|kp = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:朝鮮文請使用kokor
|po = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:波蘭文請使用plpol
|sp = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:西班牙文請使用esspa
|cz = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:捷克文請使用cscze
|kz = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:哈薩克文請使用kkkaz
|dk = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:丹麥文請使用da
|unicode|ipa = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:請檢查更正引用語言代碼
|zh-classical = need for self-actualization模板參數錯誤:文言文請使用zh-lzhlzh
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}}),是最高层的需求,包括针对于真善美至高人生境界获得的需求,因此前面四项需求都能满足,最高层的需求方能相继产生,是一种衍生性需求,如:自我实现,发挥潜能等。

  • 缺乏自我实现需求的特征:觉得自己的生活被空虚感给推动着,要自己去做一些身为一个“人”应该在这世上做的事,需要有让他能更充实自己的事物、尤其是让一个人深刻的体验到自己没有白活在这世界上的事物。也开始认为,价值观、道德观胜过金钱、爱人、尊重和社会的偏见。例如:一个真心为了帮助他人而捐款的人。一位武术家、运动家把自己的体能练到极致,让自己成为世界一流或是单纯只为了超越自己。一位企业家,真心认为自己所经营的事业能为这社会带来价值,而为了比昨天更好而工作。
  • 激励措施:设计工作时运用复杂情况的适应策略,给有特长的人委派特别任务,在设计工作和执行计划时为下级留有余地。

超自我实现[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

超自我实现(Over Actualization)是马斯洛在晚期时,所提出的一个理论。

这是当一个人的心理状态充分的满足了自我实现的需求时,所出现短暂的“高峰体验”,通常都是在执行一件事情时,或是完成一件事情时,才能深刻体验到的这种感觉,通常都是出现在艺术家、或是音乐家身上。

注记:高峰体验,可参考(超个人心理学)

例如:

  • 一位音乐家,在演奏音乐时,所感受到的一股“忘我”的体验。
  • 一位艺术家在画图时,感受不到时间的消逝,他在画图的每一分钟,对他来说跟一秒一样快,但每一秒却活的比一个礼拜还充实。

批评[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

M·A·沃赫拜{{#switch:en

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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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   |非中文內容
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 }}的條目]]}}

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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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}})与L·G·布里德韦尔{{#switch:en

|zh|gan|zh-yue = L. G. Bridwell
|jp|jap = -{L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:日文請使用ja
|gr = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:希臘文請使用elgre
|kp = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:朝鮮文請使用kokor
|po = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:波蘭文請使用plpol
|sp = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:西班牙文請使用esspa
|cz = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:捷克文請使用cscze
|kz = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:哈薩克文請使用kkkaz
|dk = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:丹麥文請使用da
|unicode|ipa = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:請檢查更正引用語言代碼
|zh-classical = L. G. Bridwell模板參數錯誤:文言文請使用zh-lzhlzh
|#default = L. G. Bridwell}}{{#switch:en
|ar|arc|arz|az|ckb|dv|fa|glk|ha|he|ks|ku|mzn|pnb|ps|ug|ur|yi = ‎
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 | hide = 
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   {{#ifeq: h0#384!5nea+w9 |  [[Category:含有{{#switch:en
 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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 |ar       = 阿拉伯語
 |en|eng   = 英語
 |es       = Template:ISO 639 name es
 |de       = 德語
 |fr       = 法語
 |ja|jp|jap= 日語
 |bg       = Template:ISO 639 name bg
 |cs       = Template:ISO 639 name cs
 |da       = Template:ISO 639 name da
 |nl       = Template:ISO 639 name nl
 |et       = Template:ISO 639 name et
 |fi       = Template:ISO 639 name fi
 |el|gre   = 希臘語
 |hu       = Template:ISO 639 name hu
 |ga       = Template:ISO 639 name ga
 |grc      = 古希臘語
 |kr       = Template:ISO 639 name kr
 |la|lat   = 拉丁語
 |cy       = Template:ISO 639 name cy
 |sl|slv   = Template:ISO 639 name sl
 |zh-yue|yue = Template:ISO 639 name zh-yue
 |zh|zh-hans|zh-hant|zh-cn|zh-tw|zh-hk|zh-sg|zh-mo|zh-my|zh-hani = 明確引用中文
 |#default = {{#ifexist:Category:含有英語的條目
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}})曾针对马斯洛的理论进行广泛回顾,并没有发现到任何证据显示存有马斯洛所定义的需求层次<ref>Wahba, M. A.; Bridwell, L. G. -{R|Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 1976, 15 (2): 212–240. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6. </ref>。

吉尔特·霍夫斯塔德则批评这种需求层次的排列(例如自我实现为最高需求)已经成为一种种族优越的表现<ref>Hofstede, G. The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept (PDF). Academy of Management Review. 1984, 9 (3): 389–398. doi:10.5465/amr.1984.4279653. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2014-11-12). </ref>。马斯洛的需求层次无法进一步描述社会与思想的需求,在个人主义社会与集体主义社会中是否有差异性。个人主义社会的需求,比起集体主义社会更偏向个人中心取向,常聚焦于自我改善、自我实现与极致地自我完善。在集体主义社会当中,认可与社群的需求会高过自由与个人的需求<ref>Cianci, R.; Gambrel, P. A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 2003, 8 (2): 143–161. </ref>。

方法[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

马斯洛研究了他所谓的模范人物,包含了阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦珍·亚当斯爱莲娜·罗斯福弗雷德里克·道格拉斯,不研究有精神病神经症的人,写下“对于残废、发育不良、不成熟与不健康的个案研究,将只会产生一种残缺的心理学与哲学<ref>Maslow, A. Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. 1954: 236. ISBN 0-06-041987-3. </ref>。”马斯洛研究了大学学生人口中前1%的最健康个案<ref>Mittelman, W. Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 1991, 31 (1): 114–135. doi:10.1177/0022167891311010. </ref>。

层级[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

全部层级[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

研究对于亚伯拉罕·马斯洛所描述的层级仅发现很少的证据<ref>Wahba, Mahmoud A.; Bridwell, Lawrence G. Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 1976-04, 15 (2): 212–240 [2019-11-23]. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6. (原始内容存档于2021-05-06) (English). </ref>。

参见[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

参考文献[编辑 | 编辑源代码]

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it:Bisogno#La piramide di Maslow