社會心理學
| 心理學 |
|---|
| The Greek letter 'psi', a symbol for psychology |
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}{」認識你自己]] 社會心理學（英語：Social Psychology）是一門研究個體和群體的社會心理、社會行為及其發展規律的科學<ref name="PKU">社會心理學. 北京大學出版社. 2018. ISBN 978-7-301-29743-8 （中文（中國大陸））.</ref>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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- 個體過程：主要研究和個體有關的心理和行為，包括成就行為和個體的工作績效、社會態度和態度改變、歸因、認知過程和認知失調、個體知覺和自我意識、個體人格和社會發展，以及應激和情緒問題；
- 人際過程：主要研究人和人之間的相互作用，包括侵犯和助人行為、人際吸引力和愛情、從眾和服從、社會交換和社會影響、非言語交流，以及性別角色和性別差異；
- 群體過程：主要以群體和宏觀文化及社會環境的角度研究個體和群體的心理和行為，包括跨文化比較、環境心理、團體過程和組織行為、種族偏見和倫理問題，以及健康心理。
社會心理學的研究層面可以分為以下三種：<ref name="ECNU"/>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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- 個體社會心理學：主要研究在特定社會環境下，個體的心理和行為特徵對個體社會因素的影響。包括個體的社會化、自我意識、社會動機、社會認知、態度、態度改變和人際關係等方面；
- 群體社會心理學：主要研究團體成員之間、成員和其他個體之間、團體和其他團體之間的相互作用，包括人際互動、團體凝聚力、從眾和服從等和團體相關的問題；
- 應用社會心理學：應用社會心理學是一門將社會心理學的理論方法實際運用在理解和解答社會問題的應用學科，可以分為理論、研究和實踐三個領域，也可以分為知識建構、利用和干預、改善生活質量三個領域。
發展歷史[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
產生階段[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
1895－1934年是社會心理學的產生階段。一般認為，具備較為完整理論體系的社會心理學誕生於19世紀末。1895年，由美國印第安納大學的諾曼·特里普萊特教授所進行的首場社會心理學實驗標誌了美國社會心理學研究的開始<ref name="PKU"/>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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}}<ref>Norman Triplett. -{R|The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology. 1898, 9 (4): 507–533 [2021-07-22]. JSTOR 1412188. doi:10.2307/1412188. （原始內容存檔於2021-12-11） （English）.</ref>。1908年，由英國心理學家威廉·麥獨孤所著的《社會心理學導論》和由美國心理學家李·羅斯所著的《社會心理學》的出版，標誌了社會心理學理論的正式建立。1924年，在美國心理學家高爾頓·威拉德·奧爾波特證明了實驗是理解個體社會行為的重要手段之後，人們開始真正注意到社會心理學<ref name="PKU"/>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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精神分析[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
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}}<ref name="BNU">-{R|普通心理學. 北京師範大學出版社. 2019. ISBN 978-7-303-23687-9 （中文（中國大陸））.</ref>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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古典精神分析[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
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瑞士心理學家卡爾·榮格繼承並發展了古典精神分析的潛意識理論。其將潛意識分為了個人潛意識和集體潛意識，更強調社會文化對個體心理發展的影響。古典精神分析學派逐漸向新精神分析學派過渡<ref name="PKU"/>{{#if: |{{ safesubst:#ifeq:|
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新精神分析[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
在新精神分析學派中，包含一種社會文化學派，其觀點明確指出了社會文化對個體心理特質{{#if:||}}{{#if: |<ref group="{{#if:|註|註}}" name="{{{name}}}">如：人格。</ref> |<ref group="{{#if:|註|註}}">如：人格。</ref> }}{{#if:||}}發展的影響。支持者主要有以下三人：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 德國心理學家卡倫·霍妮認為：家庭環境和教育方式決定了人格的發展趨勢；
- 美國心理學家哈里·斯塔克·沙利文認為：社會影響對人格的發展有着重要作用，應該從人際關係的角度看待人格的發展過程；
- 美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為：社會文化的變化為檢驗和發展人格理論提供了支持，應該用文化材料來說明人格的發展過程。
行為主義[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 行為主義反對研究意識，認為個體的行為完全並單純地受外部環境所影響，並認為正負增強Template:NoteTag比來自於社會環境的影響更有效<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref name="BNU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
在20世紀5、60年代以後，隨着社會心理學和認知心理學的發展，行為主義受到了前所未有的質疑和挑戰<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
人本主義[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 人本主義心理學是由美國心理學家亞伯拉罕·馬斯洛和美國心理學家卡爾·羅傑斯借鑑現象學和存在主義哲學的觀點所創立的心理學流派。其認為個體都是單獨存在的，強調個體內部因素的整體性，而不重視個體的社會性<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref name="BNU"/>Template:Rp。
初步發展階段[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
1935－1945年是社會心理學的初步發展階段。此時期發生的1929年經濟危機和第二次世界大戰使人們切身體會到了社會因素對日常生活的重要性<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
1936年，美國心理學家發起了一個專門對社會問題進行深入研究的組織——社會問題的心理學研究協會。與此同時，種族主義在德國的興起也使心理學家開始從社會層面去研究個體行為。德裔美國心理學家庫爾特·勒溫提出應該將內部因素和外部因素Template:NoteTag相結合，同時分析二者對個體社會行為的影響，這為社會心理學的研究指出了一條以研究相互作用的新思路<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Sewell"/>。
初步繁榮階段[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
1946－1969年是社會心理學的初步繁榮階段。在第二次世界大戰結束後，許多心理學家從歐洲移居至美國，這極大地推動了美國本土心理學的發展。與此同時，他們繼承並發展了格式塔心理學「重視認知過程對個體社會行為的作用」的思想，開始關注文化等社會因素對個體的影響<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
1950年，德國社會學家狄奧多·阿多諾發現德國反猶太情緒的產生是受當地人的Template:Link-en所影響。1961年，由美國社會心理學家斯坦利·米爾格拉姆所開展的對服從行為進行研究的米爾格拉姆實驗和由美國社會心理學家利昂·費斯廷格所提出的認知失調理論標誌了社會心理學的繁榮<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
危機階段[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
20世紀70年代是社會心理學的危機階段。儘管此時期的社會心理學發展迅速，但有許多問題依然無法被解決——此時期實驗社會心理學盛行，而其結果卻不能很好地解釋個體的行為Template:NoteTag。部分心理學家對這些實驗結果的外部效度產生了懷疑並進行反省<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
但很快心理學家便開始將生態效度作為衡量實驗效度的主要部分，並發現在實驗設計足夠完備的情況下，基於行為指標進行的實驗社會心理學實驗所得到的結果依然能夠解釋個體的行為規律。為了提高生態效度，參與觀察和現場研究這兩種方法成為了社會心理學中常用的研究方法<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
繁榮階段[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
20世紀80年代至今是社會心理學的繁榮階段。此時期社會心理學的研究領域越來越廣泛並更貼近現實生活，社會心理學家開始關注所有和現實生活有關的問題Template:NoteTag，社會心理學也開始在全球範圍內發展起來<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
與此同時，整合了生物學和心理學觀點的社會神經科學的發展也使社會心理學家開始研究社會行為和情緒行為等的生物（神經）基礎和心理基礎。現代生物學技術越來越多地被應用於實驗社會心理學的研究中<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
研究取向和研究層面[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
研究取向[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會心理學是一門結合了社會學和心理學的交叉學科，研究者會因為其學科背景的不同而有着不同的研究取向，在研究目的和思路上也會有所不同<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Sewell" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
| 心理-社會心理學 | 社會-社會心理學 | |
|---|---|---|
| 研究重點 | 個體自身的心理和行為 | 團體或社會對個體的影響 |
| 理解行為的途徑 | 分析心理狀態、情緒或人格等個體（內部）因素 | 分析權力、地位或角色等外部（社會）因素 |
| 首要目標 | 預測行為 | 描述行為 |
| 主要方法 | 主實驗，兼調查 | 主調查和參與觀察 |
研究層面[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會心理學作為一門社會科學，社會行為是其研究領域之一，而研究此領域的學科卻不止社會心理學一門Template:NoteTag。因為學科的不同，它們在研究和解釋社會行為的時候，研究層面也會有所不同。主要有以下三個研究層面：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 社會層面：社會學家和政治學家所採用的研究層面，常用比較廣泛的外部因素來解釋社會行為；
- 人際層面：社會心理學家所採用的研究層面，常用個體所處的情景和其人際關係來解釋社會行為；
- 個人層面：人格心理學家和臨床心理學家所採用的研究層面，常用個體特有的心理特質Template:NoteTag來解釋社會行為。
研究理論、研究方法和實驗[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
研究理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
為了解釋同一層面的問題，心理學逐漸發展出了許多理論，其中有些理論和社會心理學有着緊密聯繫，而有些則沒有，但它們依然可以被用來解釋社會心理和社會行為<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
生物理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 生物理論又稱本能理論，主要支持者有美國心理學家威廉·麥獨孤、奧地利心理學家西格蒙德·弗洛伊德和奧地利動物學家康拉德·洛倫茲等。此理論強調生物因素Template:NoteTag對個體行為的影響，認為個體的生物特徵是與生俱來的，並在行為決定方面有重要作用<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
學習理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 學習理論原是行為主義的基礎，在美國心理學家伯爾赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金納、美國心理學家喬治·A·米勒和美國心理學家Template:Link-en等人將行為主義的理論原理運用在社會心理學上後，加拿大心理學家阿爾波特·班杜拉在20世紀70年代提出了社會學習理論<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
社會學習理論認為個體的學習主要通過聯結、增強和模仿三種機制實現，並有以下三個特點：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 強調過去經驗對個體行為的影響。假定行為來自於個體過去的學習經驗，並忽視當時的情境細節；
- 強調外部事件的刺激、個體早期的增強過程和接觸過的行為模式等外部因素的影響，較為忽視個體在當時情境下的感受和情緒等內部因素。即對個體行為的歸因存在側重點；
- 強調外顯行為。通常只解釋個體表現出來的行為，而忽視個體主觀的心理狀態。
誘因理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 誘因理論強調行為帶來的相對利益和相對損失，而不是個體過去的習慣，認為個體是否會做某種行為取決於其對行為結果所做的誘因分析，即簡單地考慮行為結果是正性（有利）還是負性（不利）的。與學習理論相比，誘因理論強調個體在當時情境下的感受和情緒等內部因素，較為忽視個體早期的增強過程和接觸過的行為模式等外部因素的影響<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
在社會心理學中，主要有以下三種誘因理論：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 理性決策論：此理論是經濟學家對行為的基本看法。認為個體或團體在進行決策時會以理性的方式估算利益和損失，根據實現目標結果的概率做出最佳決策，即以最低的代價獲得最大的利益；
- 交換理論：此理論將理性決策擴大到個體彼此間的互動。認為人際互動是個體所做的連續的理性決策，取決於個體對行為結果所做的誘因分析，強調相對利益和相對代價；
- 需求滿足論：此理論認為人的需要應該被滿足。認為行為因能滿足某種需要或動機而產生。
認知理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 認知理論認為個體的行為取決於其對社會情境的知覺和加工過程，這種過程Template:NoteTag的規律和個體對物體知覺的規律相似，個體會將複雜的社會情境知覺成類似基模的簡單而有意義的形式，從而影響個體對社會情境的反應<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。歸因理論和認知失調理論是兩個重要的社會認知理論Template:Rp。
社會認知理論認為個體的認知過程有分類Template:NoteTag和聚焦Template:NoteTag兩個原則<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
角色理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 角色理論是和社會學有着緊密聯繫的理論。此理論認為個體的行為受個體的社會角色Template:NoteTag所影響<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
社會認同理論[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 社會認同理論和角色理論較為相似，是在研究團體關係時所使用的主要理論。此理論認為影響個體的社會知覺、社會態度和社會行為的主要因素是個體對自己團體成員身份的認同感，個體不僅會從自己的成就中獲得認同感，還會從同一個團體的其他成員處獲得認同感<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
研究方法[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會心理學中的研究方法可以歸為相關研究和實驗研究兩個大類。相關研究是被動地觀察兩個變量之間的關係，實驗研究則是人為地、主動地通過控制變量去探尋兩個變量之間的關係<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
研究的過程需要收集各種數據。在社會心理學的研究中，收集數據的方法主要有以下五種：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 觀察法：此方法通過直接觀察被試Template:NoteTag來獲得第一手數據；
- 調查法：此方法和觀察法類似，只是數據的來源不是主試Template:NoteTag的觀察，而是被試的主動報告；
- 實驗法：此方法是社會心理學中最常用的研究方法。實驗既可以在實驗室中進行，也可以在自然情境中進行。通過預設情景和控制變量等手段來獲得較為準確的量化數據；
- 元分析法：此方法通常被用來對正在進行或已完成的研究進行校驗分析，使用一套統計程序來衡量數據或效應的信度和效度；
- 檔案研究法：此方法通過對現存的檔案、材料或數據等進行分析來獲得結論。
著名實驗[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
- 阿希從眾實驗：由美國心理學家所羅門·阿希於1956年所進行的一次關於從眾現象的實驗<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>；
- 米爾格拉姆實驗：由美國心理學家斯坦利·米爾格拉姆於1961年所進行的一次關於服從現象的實驗<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>；
- 斯坦福監獄實驗：由美國心理學家菲利普·津巴多於1971年所進行的一次關於服從現象和路西法效應的實驗<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
研究內容[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
自我[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
自我又稱自我意識，是個體在進行自我覺知時的習慣性傾向。其具有相對穩定性，可以被看作是一種人格特質<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。對自我的研究是社會心理學的核心內容<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
關於自我的看法主要有以下九種：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 美國心理學家威廉·詹姆士認為：自我具有二元性。自我既是由對自己的看法和信念所組成的賓我，又是一個活躍的信息處理器（即主我）；
- 美國心理學家庫勒認為：自我是通過人際關係建立的，既是個人實體，又是社會產物——他人如何看待自己、他人如何評價自己，以及他人對這些投射的情緒反應（即投射自我，又稱鏡中自我）；
- 美國心理學家喬治·賀伯特·米德認為：社會經驗在自我形成的過程中發揮了重要作用，沒有社會經驗便不可能產生自我；
- 美國心理學家哈里·斯塔克·沙利文認為：自我只有在人際關係中才能發展。強調自我的社會基礎和人際關係基礎；
- 奧地利心理學家西格蒙德·弗洛伊德認為：自我可以被分為自我（Template:Lang-de）、本我（Template:Lang-de）和超我（Template:Lang-de），三者中的自我（Template:Lang）是人格的重要特質。自我（Template:Lang）是個體可以自己意識到的部分，以現實原則進行思考、感覺、判斷和記憶，並尋求本我（Template:Lang）的滿足，保護個體不受傷害。
- 美國心理學家卡爾·羅傑斯認為：自我是個體自我知覺的組織系統，代表了個體看待自己的方式；
- 美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為：自我是個體對自己思想和情感的總和；
- 美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為：自我是個體的自我知覺。其源於人際關係、個體特質和社會經驗，通過經驗和對經驗的理解而形成，是一個多維度的、有一定層次的系統；
- 美國心理學家Template:Link-en和Template:Lang認為：自我是一個在內容和結構上的動態多面體，是不同基模、概念、原型和理論等的集合<ref name="Wurf">Template:Cite journal</ref>。
自我概念[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我概念是自我的認知方面，即個體對自己各方面的認識和信念的總和Template:NoteTag<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
可以通過自我意識推測自我、通過自己的行為推測自我、通過他人的對自己行為的反應推測自我和通過社會比較推測自我四種方式來構建自我概念<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
美國心理學家Template:Link-en提出了Template:Link-en和Template:Link-en，其發現個體在認知和自己有關的信息的時候記憶效率更高，效果更好；並認為自我概念包括理想自我、應該自我和實際自我三個部分，理想自我和應該自我對自我概念具有指導作用<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
自我基模[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我基模是以信息加工的角度看待自我概念，用來組織和指引和個體有關信息的自我信念<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
美國心理學家Template:Link-en和Template:Lang認為自我基模構成了自我概念，能夠幫助個體分類和提取經驗<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref name="Wurf"/>。
自我覺知[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 自我覺知是個體對自己的形象、行為、態度和價值觀等方面的知覺，是個體將自己當作注意對象時的心理狀態<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為可以將自我覺知分為內在自我覺知Template:NoteTag和公眾自我覺知Template:NoteTag兩類<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自我效能[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我效能是個體對自己某種能力的信念，此概念由加拿大心理學家阿爾波特·班杜拉於20世紀90年代提出<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
個體可以通過成功經驗Template:NoteTag、言語說服和情緒喚起等方式來提高自我效能感<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自尊[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自尊又稱自我價值感，是個體進行自我評價的重要維度，和個體情緒有關。自尊可以分為外顯自尊和內隱自尊，是人格成熟的重要標誌<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
自尊是個體對自己整體情況的滿意程度，既可以是積極的，又可以是消極的。自尊的確立依賴於個體控制環境的成功經驗和他人對其的積極評價。美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為個體可以通過用自我服務的方式去解釋生活、用自我障礙的策略為失敗找藉口、用防禦機制拒絕或逃避消極的反饋、用Template:Link-en或在自己某方面受到懷疑時轉向自己擅長的方面五種方式來提高自尊<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自我確認[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我確認又稱自我美化或自我增強，是個體收集和解釋有利於對自己做正面評價的信息，以佐證自我概念的行為<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
個體通過收集和解釋和其自我概念相一致的外部評價性信息，拒絕與之相反的信息來提高自尊，使他人對其有一致性的認識和評價<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
自我表演[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 自我表演又稱自我展示，是個體在他人對自己形成評價的時候進行自我展示的行為。個體為給他人留下好印象會經常進行自我表演，遇到失敗則會表現出自我障礙行為或使用自我服務策略<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
美國心理學家愛德華·埃爾斯沃思·瓊斯認為自我表演策略主要有自我抬高Template:NoteTag、顯示Template:NoteTag、謙虛Template:NoteTag、懇求Template:NoteTag、恫嚇Template:NoteTag和奉迎Template:NoteTag六種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自我檢控[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 自我檢控是個體通過觀察他人的自我表演來控制自己的自我表演的行為，即根據他人的表現來決定自己的行為<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
美國心理學家Template:Link-en和Template:Link-en認為高自我檢控的人擅長自我表演，更擅長根據情景他人的需要來進行自己的行為；低自我檢控的人不善於在他人面前自我表演，會表現出自己真實的態度和感受<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
自我障礙[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我障礙又稱自我妨礙，是個體提前準備用來解釋自己失敗原因的一套行為模式<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp，通過預先假定自己會失敗來維持或提高自尊<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
個體常以自己受到各種外部因素影響為由引導他人將自己的成功歸因於自己的能力，將失敗歸因於外部因素<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自證預言[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自證預言又稱自我實現的預言，是他人被另一個人的期望所影響，做出按其期望進行某種行為的現象<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
個體會對他人有一種先入為主的預期Template:NoteTag，這種預期不僅會影響個體對待他人及其行為的態度，其還會導致他人被這種預期和態度所影響而出現相應的行為傾向或做出被期望的行為，使預期成為現實<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>。
體像[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 體像是用來描述個體對自己軀體的知覺和有關現象的總稱<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
美國心理學家羅斯·湯普森Template:NoteTag Template:Wayback認為青少年對自己體像的要求更高，並通過實驗證明大部分青少年對自己的體像感到不滿<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
自我偏差[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自我偏差即認知偏誤，是個體偏離系統範式所做的不具有合理性的判斷<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
個體從客觀的感覺中獲得信息，但主觀地建構認知事實。個體受自我偏差的影響，可能會出現認知扭曲、判斷失實或進行不合邏輯的解釋等行為<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
自我提升[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
焦點效應[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 焦點效應是個體在進行自我觀察時，高估自己的突出程度，將自己看作是某一情境的中心，或高估他人對自己的注意程度的現象<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
和焦點效應相對應的是透明度錯覺，即個體會認為自己隱藏的情緒一經展現便隨即會被他人發現，而實際上他人可能完全感知不到<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
自利偏差[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 自利偏差又稱自我服務偏見，是個體無理由認為自己比他人更好的傾向<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
個體在處理和自己有關的信息時，為了維持較高的自尊水平<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>，會更輕易地為自己的失敗找理由，並會更欣然地接受成功所帶來的影響。個體傾向於將成功歸因於自己的能力和努力，將失敗歸因於外部因素的不完善<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
自利偏差會體現在生活的各個方面，如以下三個舉例：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 倫理道德：多數人認為自己比他人更有道德；
- 智力才能：多數人認為自己比他人更聰明、長相更好。當有人超過自己時，個體傾向將對方看成天才；
- 擺脫偏見：多數人認為自己比他人更沒有偏見，更不容易被偏見所影響。
盲目樂觀[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 盲目樂觀是一種個體的自我認知傾向。個體認為自己一直都會逢凶化吉，面對可能的失敗通常不會採取預防措施。個體對自身能力的自負幻想和高估自己取得成功或規避失敗的可能性是導致盲目樂觀的原因之一<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
盲目樂觀會體現在生活的各個方面，如以下三個舉例：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 在性生活中意外懷孕的女性中，多數是因為她們不認為自己會意外懷孕，所以沒有採取避孕措施；
- 賭徒、股民和房地產商等高風險群體會認為自己的直覺比對手的直覺更強，高估自己的盈利可能性；
- 多數的未成年人會認為如果自己成為成年人將取得更好的成績。
虛假一致性和虛假獨特性[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 虛假一致性和虛假獨特性是一種個體對他人的認知傾向。個體為了維持較高的自尊水平，會在虛假一致性的影響下過度高估他人和自己的想法或行為的同一性<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>，在虛假獨特性的影響下過度高估自己的智力、能力和道德<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
自我文化[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
獨立型自我和依賴型自我[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
獨立型自我和依賴型自我是個體對自我認知的不同表現形式（模型），不同的形式會導致人際關係的差異<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
具有獨立型自我的個體更為關注自己並表現出更多的內在特質Template:NoteTag；具有依賴型自我的個體更為關注自己和他人之間的內在聯繫，表現出更多的公共成分Template:NoteTag<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
社會認知、個體知覺和歸因[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會認知[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會認知又稱社會知覺，是個體進行選擇、理解、識記和根據社會信息進行推斷人或事物的過程<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。主要有以下兩種假設：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 將個體看成是認知吝嗇者：認為個體的認知資源是有限的，個體更傾向於使用更為簡單且省力的而非更為深思熟慮的方式進行認知活動，不需要付出的時候絕不輕易付出<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>；
- 認為人們會努力形成對世界的準確印象。
社會分類[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會分類是個體在認知他人時，通常並非將其當作是獨立的個體，而是將其歸為某一群體中的現象。群體可以分為「內群（我們）」和「外群（他們）」兩種，對於不同的群體，個體可能會誇大群體內部的相似性和不同群體之間的差異性，導致發生外群體同質效應<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。這種分類受很多方面差別的影響，包括種族、性別、年齡、職業和政治傾向等，是引起偏見的原因之一<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。同時，個體在對待內群的成員時，相比對待外群的成員會更為友好，也更容易發生歸因偏差和內群體偏好<ref>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>；
基模[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 基模描述了一種思維或行為模式，其用來區分信息的類別，區分信息之間的關係<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。心理學家認為可以將基模分為個人基模、自我基模、團體基模、角色基模和劇本五種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
社會認知法則[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會認知法則主要有Template:Link-enTemplate:NoteTag、象徵性法則Template:NoteTag、基礎比例信息Template:NoteTag和Template:Link-enTemplate:NoteTag四種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
個體知覺[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
個體知覺是個體通過有限的信息認識他人的過程<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。知覺線索包括情緒、言語交流和非言語線索三種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
系列位置效應[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 系列位置效應影響着個體對他人的印象形成過程，包括第一印象和整體印象兩種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
知覺偏差[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
知覺偏差是個體知覺過程的特性，包括暈輪效應和Template:Link-enTemplate:NoteTag和Template:Link-en兩種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
歸因[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 歸因是個體根據已有的外部信息或線索來判斷個體的內在狀態或根據個體的外在行為來推測行為原因的過程<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
社會行為[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 社會行為是多個個體之間或多個團體之間、團體內部或多個團體之間的互動行為<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>。
侵犯行為[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 侵犯行為又稱攻擊性行為，是有意圖、外顯並傷害他人身心健康的行為。行為有「親社會」和「反社會」兩種傾向（意圖），並非所有的侵犯行為都是壞事<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp。
利社會行為[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 利社會行為是個體自發地或有意圖地幫助他人的行為，包括利他行為和Template:Link-en兩種<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp。
社會交換和社會影響[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會交換[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 社會交換是個體的社會生活的基本原則之一，可以使個體和他人建立積極聯繫<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
社會影響[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 社會影響是個體或團體的社會力量在特定方向上改變他人態度或行為的現象。社會力量主要來源於獎賞權、強制權、參照權、法定權、專家權、信息權、社會地位相聯繫的各種權力，以及被愛和受尊敬的影響力<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
社會影響主要體現在社會促進、社會懈怠和去個體化三個方面<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
從眾、順從和服從[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 從眾、順從和服從行為是社會影響對個體行為的決定作用的直接體現<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp。
從眾是個體在壓力下改變行為的傾向<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp；順從是個體在他人的直接請求下按照其要求改變行為的傾向<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp；服從是個體在他人的直接命令下按其命令做出某種行為的傾向<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp。
態度、偏見和說服[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
社會態度[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 社會態度是社會心理學的核心問題<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。在社會心理學中，態度的定義多種多樣，其中有以下三種具有代表性的觀點：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- 美國心理學家高爾頓·威拉德·奧爾波特認為：態度是憑藉經驗組織起來的、影響個體對情景的反應的心理和神經的準備狀態，其強調經驗在態度形成中所發揮的作用；
- 美國心理學家Template:Link-en認為：態度是個體對自己所生活的世界中的某些現象的動機過程、情感過程、知覺過程的持久組織，其強調現在的主觀經驗而不是過去的主觀經驗對態度形成的影響；
- 心理學家Template:Lang認為：態度是個體對某一特定事物或觀念的由認知、情感和行為傾向三個成分所組成的心理傾向，其強調了態度的組成和特點。是目前心理學家們所公認的對態度比較好的解釋。
偏見[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 偏見是個體或群體基於不正確或不充分的信息對其他個體或群體形成的錯誤或片面的看法<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
說服[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 說服是個體試圖形成、加強或改變他人態度或行為傾向的行為<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>。
說服有三種Template:Link-en：卡爾·霍夫蘭德說服模型、路徑和中心模型和Sears說服模型，以及一些Template:Link-en<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
人際關係[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 人際關係是個體在彼此交往的過程中形成的心理關係<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
人際關係表現在個體對他人的影響和依賴兩個方面，和他人建立良好的人際關係是個體的社會生活中最重要的任務之一<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
人際吸引力和親密關係[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
愛情[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
在社會心理學中，團體是由一群相互依賴並相互影響的人所組成的集合，團體成員之間應有相互接觸和互動的可能。規模是團體最重要的維度之一<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體對個體心理的影響主要體現在以下三個方面：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 歸屬感：即個體對團體的歸屬感，是某團體成員所具有的自己屬於此團體的感覺。這種感覺可以衍生出許多情感，如：民族情感、愛國情感和家庭情感等；
- 認同感：即個體對一些重大事件和原則問題的認識和團體要求之間的同一性。個體通常將團體作為社會認同的對象，認同感影響着個體的心理和行為；
- 社會支持：即團體對個體的正增強作用。當個體的思想和行為等符合其所在團體的要求時，團體通常會對其加以讚許或進行鼓勵，從而增強個體的特定行為。
團體分類[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
根據個體彼此間關係的緊密程度可以將社會群體分為以下六種：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 統計集合：根據某一特徵對群體進行劃分，如男性維基人、女性維基人、可男可女或非男非女的維基人。這種群體中的成員不一定彼此相識或有所互動，不能算作團體；
- 觀眾：根據某一相同的活動對象對群體進行劃分，如山東青島電視台某節目的觀眾。這種群體中的成員彼此不相識，也沒有互動，不能算作團體；
- 群眾：根據某一情境對群體進行劃分，如在街頭圍觀車禍現場的圍觀者。這種群體中的成員只在空間上較為接近，而彼此不相識，也沒有互動，不能算作團體；
- 組或隊：根據某一相同的目標對群體進行劃分，如中國國家足球隊。這種群體中的成員彼此間有所互動，可以算作團體；
- 家庭：這種群體中的成員彼此間有血緣、婚姻或收養關係等，通常共同居住，可以算作團體；
- 正式組織：這種群體中的成員以清晰、有結構的方式協作，以完成任務為目標。如維基媒體基金會，可以算作團體。
團體規範[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體規範是團體用來保證其目標的實現，制約其成員思想、信念和行為的範圍性準則，這使團體成員表現出一定程度的一致性<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
鬆散的團體規範通常不會對團體成員產生較大影響，但可以使這種規範得以長久存在；嚴格的團體規範通常會對團體成員產生較大影響，但這種規範更容易受到團體成員的修改<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
心理學家通常以規範的正式程度將團體規範分為正式規範Template:NoteTag和非正式規範Template:NoteTag兩種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體規範的作用主要體現在以下三個方面：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 保持團體的一致性：即維持團體認同感。團體規範不僅從外部約束着團體成員的思想、信念和行為方式，還從內部為團體成員提供了相互認同的依據，從而使某位團體成員和團體其他成員保持一致。團體規範的約束力影響着從眾行為和團體決策；
- 為團體成員提供同一認知標準和行為準則：團體規範為不同團體成員提供一個衡量自己和他人思想、信念和行為方式的共同心理參照系，即團體中的統一標準；
- 惰性作用：團體規範會限制團體成員的努力水平，使團體成員不能表現得太好或太差，即霍桑效應。
團體凝聚力[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 團體凝聚力是使團體成員團結一致的力量，通常用來衡量團體認同感的程度。美國社會心理學家利昂·費斯廷格認為團體凝聚力是作用於團體成員之間的使其能夠留在當前團體的各種因素的合力，包括正性力量和負性力量<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體凝聚力對團體成員的影響主要體現在以下四個方面：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 團體成員的穩定程度：團體凝聚力越強的團體，其成員越不願意離開，團體的穩定程度越高；
- 對團體成員的影響力：團體凝聚力越強的團體，其成員受到團體的影響更大，更容易出現從眾行為；
- 團體成員的自尊程度：團體凝聚力越強的團體，其成員的自尊程度越高，表現出更低的焦慮，並更信任彼此；
- 團體產出和工作效率：團體凝聚力越強的團體，其成員的工作效率在團體規範倡導高效時越高，在團體規範不倡導高效時越低。
影響團體凝聚力的因素主要有以下四種：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 需要的滿足：團體越能滿足其成員的需要，其凝聚力越大；
- 團體目標：當團體的目標和團體成員的目標相同時，其凝聚力越大；
- 團體活動：團體的活動越對其成員有吸引力，其凝聚力越大；
- 團體領導：在團體決策中允許團體成員參與的民主型領導，其所領導的團體凝聚力越大。
團體領導[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體領導是對團體行為和信念產生並施加較大影響的人，能夠發起活動、下達命令、陟罰臧否、調停爭議並使團體向着達成目標前進<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
美國社會心理學家Template:Link-en從社會影響的角度將團體領導分為任務型領導Template:NoteTag和社會情緒型領導Template:NoteTag兩類<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
有關團體領導的理論主要有：特質理論、勝任特徵理論、領導與下屬交換理論、權變領導模型、路徑－目標模型和三重需要理論<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體領導的效能除了受領導風格和情境因素的影響之外，還受以下兩種因素的影響：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 性別和領導方式：美國心理學家Template:Link-en和美國康涅狄格大學教授Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>通過研究指出，女性領導在帶領團體進行決策時，相比於男性領導更願意使用民主和參與性的方法，而男性領導則更願意使用獨裁和指導性的方法。同時，艾麗斯·伊格利認為女性在社會化過程中人際交往能力發展得比男性更完善；<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- 文化和領導方式：希臘心理學家Template:Link-en通過研究指出，人們在不同的文化環境中所理想的領導的特徵也有一些不同。在集體主義文化中，團體領導被認為應該更關心團體及其成員的需要和團體內的人際關係；在個人主義文化中，團體領導被認為應該更以任務為中心，並強調團體成員個人的成就。<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
團體溝通[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 團體溝通是實現團體實現其組織功能的重要保障，可以使團體成員相互了解，也是重要的團體活動課題<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體溝通主要有以下兩種特性：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 團體成員發言不平等：在團體溝通時，無論何種話題、團體成員之間的熟悉程度如何，總會出現一或兩位成員主導討論的情況；
- 團體領導的主導作用：在團體溝通時，團體領導有突出的主導作用。團體領導是團體中最活躍的人，發言次數是其成為團體領導的必要條件。
用特定的模式Template:NoteTag表示團體溝通的方式時，可以分為以下四種溝通網絡：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 圓型：團體成員溝通機會均等，成員之間只能和自己相鄰的成員溝通，不能和其他成員溝通；
- 鏈型：處在端點處的團體成員只能和自己相鄰的成員溝通，處在中間的三位成員能和自己相鄰的兩位成員溝通，最中間的成員更為重要；
- 樹（Y）型：鏈型的分支。處在端點處的團體成員只能和自己相鄰的成員溝通，處在中間的兩位成員能和自己相鄰的成員溝通；
- 輪（+）型：處在端點處的團體成員只能和自己相鄰的成員溝通，處在中間的成員能和所有的成員溝通。
團體溝通的順暢與否會影響團體士氣和效率。美國管理心理學家Template:Link-en通過研究指出，團體成員相互交流的自由度越高，其滿意度越高<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。在解決簡單的問題時，集中度高的溝通更有利，因為團體領導可以較為迅速地收集到所有的信息；在解決複雜問題時，集中度低的溝通更有利，因為團體成員可以較為自由地交流所有的信息<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
儘管團體通常有着共同的目標，但因為團體成員之間存在利益和矛盾、對其他團體成員行為的錯誤歸因、使用不良的溝通方式和對利益和矛盾的知覺，還是會引發團體衝突。在心理學中，衝突是一種兩個或多個社會成員之間因有不同的反應或期望而產生的緊張狀態。衝突有零和非零兩種形式，零和衝突是競爭性的、衝突一方的收益是另一方的損失，非零和衝突是非競爭性的、衝突一方的收益不等於另一方的損失<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
解決衝突的方式主要有湯瑪斯─基爾曼衝突解決模型、協商式溝通和利用中間人溝通三種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體溝通方式的差異、溝通者的性別差異和溝通時的文化差異會導致溝通障礙<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體決策[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See also 團體決策是團體成員面對團體所遇到的問題，探尋問題解決策略的過程<ref name="ECNU"/>Template:Rp。
一般性問題[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體決策的一般性問題主要有以下三種：<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
- 兩類決策問題：智力問題和判斷問題；
- 多數人和少數人對決策的影響：團體決策通常會選擇多數人的意見，除非少數人的意見是由團體領導發出的或少數人對自己的意見極為堅持；
- 團體領導對決策的影響：團體領導的意見帶有權威性。
決策規則[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體決策的規則主要有一致性規則Template:NoteTag、優勢取勝規則Template:NoteTag和多數取勝規則Template:NoteTag三種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
決策方法[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
團體決策的方法主要有頭腦風暴、德爾菲法、Template:Link-en、階梯技術<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>和群體決策支持系統<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>五種<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
團體極化[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 團體極化是經團體溝通使團體決策趨向極端的現象，即風險轉移<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>；或經團體溝通使團體決策趨向保守的現象<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。
團體在解決重要問題時，相比一般問題更容易發生團體極化現象<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>。<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp
團體思維[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:See 團體思維又稱小集團意識，是在高團體凝聚力的團體內部，因其成員在思考問題和決策時過度追求團體一致而使團體決策不能作出客觀且實際的評價和方案的思維模式<ref name="PKU"/>Template:Rp。
註腳[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
參考文獻[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
外部連結[編輯 | 編輯原始碼]
Template:Library resources box Template:Commons category Template:Wikiversity Template:Wikiquotes
- 社會心理學網 Template:Wayback
- 社會心理學 Template:Wayback
- 社會心理學 Template:Wayback（公共科學圖書館主題）
- 眾所周知的社會心理學 Template:Wayback
Template:心理學 Template:SocialPsychology Template:Evolutionary psychology Template:社會科學 Template:公共衛生 Template:Authority control