编辑“身體意象”

'''身體意象'''（英語：Body image）是一個人對自己身體的[[美學]]或[[性吸引力]]的[[想法]]、[[感受]]和[[感知]]。<ref name="Grogan 2016 book">{{cite book|last1=Grogan|first1=S|title=Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children|date=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> 身體意象的概念用於許多學術領域，包括[[神經科學]]、[[心理學]]、[[醫學]]、[[精神病學]]、[[精神分析]]、[[哲學]]、[[文化研究|文化]]和[[女權主義]]研究。在這些領域中，沒有單一的共識定義，但從廣義上講，身體意象包括人們看待自己的方式；他們的[[記憶]]、[[經驗|經歷]]、[[假設]]和對自己外表的比較；以及他們對各自[[身高]]、[[體型]]和[[體重]]的整體[[態度 (心理學)|態度]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/what-body-image|title=What is Body Image?|publisher=National Eating Disorders Association|access-date=2017-10-31|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124055150/https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/what-body-image}}</ref>—所有這些都受到普遍的[[社會]]和[[文化]]理想的影響。

身體形象可以是消極的（“身體消極”）或積極的（“身體積極”）。具有負面身體形象的人可能會感到不[[自在]]或[[羞恥]]，並且可能會覺得其他人更有吸引力。<ref name=":1" /> 在[[社群媒體|社交媒體]]佔據非常重要的地位並在我們的日常生活中頻繁使用的時代。不同年齡和性別的人在情感和心理上都會受到他們所生活的社會設定的外貌和體型理想的影響。社會創造和改變的這些標準創造了一個充滿身體羞辱的世界；透過嘲笑或批評一個人的生理外貌來羞辱一個人的行為。根據 anad.org 的說法，“我們是自己最糟糕的批評家”，這意味著我們比其他任何人都更能判斷和看到自己的缺陷。我們透過評判或與他人比較來羞辱自己。<ref>{{Cite web|title=Body Shaming. What It Is & How To Overcome It {{!}} ANAD|url=https://anad.org/education-and-awareness/body-image/body-image-articles/body-shaming/|access-date=2020-12-02|website=National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111195640/https://anad.org/education-and-awareness/body-image/body-image-articles/body-shaming/}}</ref>

除了[[自尊]]心低之外，患者通常會專注於改變自己的外表。從長遠來看，這種行為會引起身體不滿，並增加患[[飲食失調]]、[[孤獨|孤立]]和[[精神疾病]]的風險。在飲食失調症中，負面的身體意象也可能導致身體意象障礙（英語：Body image disturbance），即對整個身體的[[感知]]改變。身體不滿意也是[[軀體變形障礙]]的特徵，這是一種強迫症，定義為對身體某些特定方面（通常是面部、皮膚或頭髮）的擔憂，這些方面存在嚴重缺陷，需要採取特殊措施來隱藏或修復。通常，認定自己身體意象不佳的人會嘗試以某種方式改變自己的身體，例如[[節食]]或接受[[整容手術]]。另一方面，積極的身體形象包括清楚正確地[[感知]]自己的身材，慶祝和欣賞自己的身體，並理解一個人的外表並不反映一個人的[[性格]]或[[價值]]。<ref name=":1" />

許多因素會影響一個人的身體意象，包括[[家庭]]動態、精神疾病、[[肥胖]]或[[營養不良]]的[[生物學]]傾向和環境原因，以及文化期望（例如媒體和政治）。體重過輕或超重的人自我認定的身體意象可能很差。然而，當人們不斷地被告知和展示[[減肥]]的美容吸引力並被警告肥胖的風險時，那些[[體重指數]]正常或超重的人身體意像不佳的風險更高。<ref>{{cite journal|title=Body Image, Media, and Eating Disorders|first1=J. L.|last2=Beresin|first2=E. V.|date=1 June 2006|journal=Academic Psychiatry|issue=3|doi=10.1176/appi.ap.30.3.257|volume=30|pages=257–261|pmid=16728774|last1=Derenne|s2cid=11131622}}</ref> “我們預計[[女性]]在看到超瘦[[模特兒|模特]]後會對自己的身體感覺更糟，與沒有模特相比，如果她們內化了理想的瘦身，從而複製了以前的發現。”<ref name="DittmarHoward2004">{{cite journal|title=Thin-Ideal Internalization and Social Comparison Tendency as Moderators of Media Models' Impact on Women's Body-Focused Anxiety|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-and-clinical-psychology_2004-12_23_6/page/768|first1=Helga|last2=Howard|first2=Sarah|date=December 2004|journal=Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology|issue=6|doi=10.1521/jscp.23.6.768.54799|volume=23|pages=768–791|last1=Dittmar}}</ref>

[[美國心理學會]] 2007 年的一份報告發現，在整個文化範圍內對女孩和婦女的[[性化]]，正在導致與身體形象相關的女性[[焦慮]]增加。<ref name="APA2">{{cite web|title=Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls|url=http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf|year=2007|publisher=American Psychological Association|access-date=2011-03-03|archive-date=2012-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915054744/http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf}}</ref> [[澳大利亞參議院|澳大利亞政府參議院]]常務委員會關於媒體中兒童性化的報告，報告了與身體形象相關的類似發現。<ref>{{cite web|title=Sexualisation of children in the contemporary media|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Completed_inquiries/2008-10/sexualisationofchildren/report/index|access-date=2016-05-03|date=June 26, 2008|publisher=Parliament of Australia|quote=The committee considers that the inappropriate sexualisation of children in Australia is of increasing concern...In particular, the onus is on broadcasters, publishers, advertisers, retailers and manufacturers to take account of these community concerns.|archive-date=2022-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521021011/https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Completed_inquiries/2008-10/sexualisationofchildren/report/index}}</ref> 然而，其他學者對這些說法並非基於可靠數據表示擔憂。<ref name="tamiu">{{cite journal|title=Who is The Fairest One of All? How Evolution Guides Peer and Media Influences on Female Body Dissatisfaction|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Winegard|first2=Benjamin|date=March 2011|journal=Review of General Psychology|issue=1|doi=10.1037/a0022607|volume=15|pages=11–28|last3=Winegard|first3=Bo M.|last1=Ferguson|s2cid=4848392}}</ref>

身體意象經常與[[身體基模]]（Body schema）混淆，後者涉及控制姿勢和動作。<ref name="Gallagherbook">{{cite book|last=Gallagher|first=S.|title=How the body shapes the mind|year=2006|isbn=0199204160|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA}}</ref>

==概述==
法國兒童精神分析學家法蘭索娃絲·多爾多（Francoise Dolto）發展了一種無意識身體意象的理論<ref>Francoise Dolto, ''L'image inconscient du corps''. Paris: Seuil, 1984. ISBN 2020183021.</ref>。一個人就自己身體的消極看法（如認為是脂肪），可以在某些情況下導致精神疾病，如抑鬱症或飲食失調如暴食症，儘管這些疾病可以有各種不同的原因。

最近傳媒業的辯論集中在零號身材模特兒對年輕人身體意象的潛在負面影響。有人認為，零號身材模特兒應被禁止走天橋步，許多急劇消瘦或身形修長的名人成為媒體攻擊的目標，如[[姬·摩絲]]。一些女明星如[[維多利亞·碧咸]]標榜身材纖瘦，但媒體只集中於零號模特兒現象對年輕女性的影響。然而，媒體迅速譴責那些贊同快速節食的名人，包括認為不理會朋輩關於身材的壓力等同「社會自殺」的歌星。

男性的身體意象是學術文章和大眾媒體中漸感興趣的話題。目前的研究表明，許多人想自己更加健壯，往往渴望擁有額外重26磅的肌肉量。根據這項研究，西方男性較亞洲男性高估肌肉質量多達30磅<ref>Pope, H.G., Phillips, K.A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). ''The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession.'' Sydney: The Free Press.</ref>。許多人渴望擁有更多肌肉，這與陽剛之氣的概念有關<ref>McCreary, Saucier, &Courtenay 2005; Kimmel & Mahalik, 2004</ref>。研究顯示一個人渴望擁有更多肌肉與他對男性傳統觀念的認可有關，肌肉和陽剛之氣的關係更在早年開始，像男孩的人形模型常被描繪成超級肌肉發達，甚至往往超出人體生理學的實際限制。<ref>Pope, et al. 1999</ref>研究發現，女性較男性更注意身體意象和支持纖瘦，這現象即使在女性進入老年後仍然持續<ref name="Ferraro FR et al.">{{cite journal|last=Ferraro, F. Richard; Muehlenkamp, Jennifer J.; Paintner, Ashley; Wasson, Kayla; Hager, Tracy; Hoverson, Fallon.|date=October 2008|title=Aging, Body Image, and Body Shape |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-psychology_2008-10_135_4/page/379|journal=Journal of General Psychology|volume= 135|issue= 4|pages=379–392, 14p |pmid=18959228|doi=10.3200/GENP.135.4.379-392|first1=FR|last2=Muehlenkamp|first2=JJ|last3=Paintner|first3=A|last4=Wasson|first4=K|last5=Hager|first5=T|last6=Hoverson|first6=F}}</ref>。女大學生對自己身體滿意度在遇到纖瘦女性下降，而滿意度在接觸到體型較大的模特兒時則上升<ref name="Psicothema">{{cite journal|last=Sonia Tucca; Jennifer Petters|date=2008 Nov|title=Media influences on body satisfaction in female students|journal=Psicothema|volume=20|pages=521–4|url=http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3517.pdf|format=PDF|pmid=18940045|first1=S|last2=Peters|first2=J|issue=4|access-date=2011-03-03|archive-date=2011-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715130355/http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3517.pdf|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name="Hawkins N et al.">{{cite journal|last=Hawkins, Nicole; Richards, P. Scott;  Granley, H. Mac; Stein, David M.|date=Spring2004|title=The Impact of Exposure to the Thin-Ideal Media Image on Women.|journal=Eating Disorders|volume= 12 |issue= 1|pages=35–50, 16p, 2 charts|issn=10640266 |pmid=16864303 |doi=10.1080/10640260490267751|first1=N|last2=Richards|first2=PS|last3=Granley|first3=HM|last4=Stein|first4=DM}}</ref>。

==測量==
受訪者就一系列的描述對自己體形和理想體形作出評分，兩者數值差值作為對身體不滿的指標，從而測量身體意象。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00224549709595493 |author=Monteath SA, McCabe MP |title=The influence of societal factors on female body image |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-psychology_1997-12_137_6/page/708 |journal=J Soc Psychol |volume=137 |issue=6 |pages=708–27 |pmid=9414624 |date=December 1997}}</ref>研究人員發現44％女性對身體部位或整個身體表達負面情緒，而1997年的調查指出56％女性和40％男性不滿意自己的整體外觀。<ref>[http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-19970201-000023&page=2 Psychology Today: Body Image Poll Results] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315002921/http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-19970201-000023&page=2 |date=2007-03-15 }}</ref>

==身體意象與體重==
減肥意欲與身體意象欠佳有密切關係，女性比男性更想減肥，研究報告指出渴望減肥的人士的身體意象沒有因不同性別而異<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kashubeck-West S, Mintz LB, Weigold I |title=Separating the Effects of Gender and Weight-Loss Desire on Body Satisfaction and Disordered Eating Behavior |journal=Sex Roles |volume=53 |issue=7-8, |pages=505–518 |doi=10.1007/s11199-005-7138-4 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/y07h74u11ug0x245/ |date=October 2005 }}{{Dead link|date=2020年3月 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>。1997年後的研究表明約64％美國成年人超重，女性和男性不滿率應分別高於56％和40％，因為儘管有些沒有過重的人仍然認為自己是過重，但更多應該不滿意自己身體的人對身體表示滿意<ref>{{cite web|title=Obesity Statistics: U.S. Obesity Trends |url=http://www.naaso.org/statistics/obesity_trends.asp |publisher=North American Association for the Study of Obesity |accessdate=2008-03-08 |year=2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060206185213/http://www.naaso.org/statistics/obesity_trends.asp |archivedate=2006-02-06 }}</ref>。換句話說，社會的減肥壓力對整體社會利多於弊，雖然壓力不利毋需減肥的人，但與肥胖相關的健康和社會問題在沒有社會壓力的情況下將變得更加嚴重<ref>{{cite web|title = Statistics Related to Overweight and Obesity|url = http://www.win.niddk.nih.gov/statistics/|publisher = CDC|year = 2006|accessdate = 2009-01-23|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090130040952/http://win.niddk.nih.gov/statistics/|archive-date = 2009-01-30|dead-url = yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mxm007v1|title = The obesity epidemic in the United States—gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis|last1 = Wang|first1 = Youfa|last2 = Beydoun|first2 = May A|journal = Epidemiologic Reviews|year = 2007|doi = 10.1093/epirev/mxm007|pmid = 17510091|volume = 29|pages = 6–28|access-date = 2011-03-03|archive-date = 2010-08-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100801060539/http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mxm007v1}}</ref>。

==媒體衝擊==
許多評論家認為媒體和時尚業界把重點放在纖瘦和理想的女性身形，導致損害年輕婦女的心理和自我形象，引起過度節食、運動及飲食失調，如神經性厭食症。社會文化研究指出文化因素影響女性在神經性厭食症的發病率，如西方工業化國家通過媒體宣揚理想的女性形象是瘦削。一項在2003年關於989,871[[瑞典]]居民的流行病學研究表明，性別、種族和社會經濟地位與患上神經性厭食症的機會有密切關係，父母不是來自[[歐洲]]的婦女病發率最低，而生於富裕的瑞典裔家庭的女性則有最高的病發率。<ref>Lindberg L, Hjern A. (2003) "Risk factors for anorexia nervosa: a national cohort study". ''Int J Eat Disord'', 34 (4), 397-408. PMID 14566927</ref>

一項研究表明，從事需要保持身形纖瘦社職業的人士（如模特兒或舞蹈演員）在職業生涯中患上厭食症的機會較高<ref>Garner DM, Garfinkel PE. (1980) "Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa." ''Psychol Med'', 10 (4), 647-56. PMID 7208724.</ref>，進一步研究表明厭食症患者與提倡減肥的文化源頭有較大接觸<ref>Toro J, Salamero M, Martinez E. (1994) "Assessment of sociocultural influences on the aesthetic body shape model in anorexia nervosa". ''Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica'', 89 (3), 147-51. PMID 8178671.</ref>。神經性厭食症通常與西方文化有關，接觸西方媒體被認為是非西方國家個案增加的原因。其他文化可能不像西方般關注肥胖，而是強調其他的身體特徵。

==參考文獻==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==延伸閱讀==
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[[Category:心理學]]
[[Category:体形]]
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