编辑“痛苦”

[[File:Polish victim of German Luftwaffe action 1939.jpg|thumb|1939年9月，[[波蘭]][[華沙]]，12岁的波兰女孩卡齐米拉·米卡在她的姐姐安娜（14岁）旁邊，後者在[[納粹德國空軍|德国空军]]的空袭中丧生。<br>摄影师朱利安·布赖恩描述当时的情景：“当我们开车经过城镇边缘的一片小田地时，我们目睹了這场悲劇，这是最令人难以置信的几分钟。七名妇女一直在地里挖土豆————他们所在的地区没有面粉，他们急需食物。突然两架德国飞机不知从哪里冒出来，向两百码外的一所小房子投下两枚炸弹。房子里的两名妇女被炸死。挖[[马铃薯|土豆]]的人平躺着地面上，希望不被注意。[[轰炸机]]离开后，妇女们回到工作岗位。她们必须吃东西。<br>但纳粹飞行员对他们的轟炸并不满意。几分钟后，他们回来俯冲到离地面不到200英尺的地方，这次用机枪扫射。七名妇女中有两名被杀。当我在给尸体拍照时，一个十岁的小女孩跑过来，站在一具遺體旁边目瞪口呆。这个女人是她的姐姐。孩子从未见过死亡，不明白为什么姐姐不再跟她说话……]]
'''痛苦'''（suffering）是構成[[情感 (心理學)|情感]]現象負面效價（Valence）的基本要素。痛苦的反面是[[快樂]]或[[幸福]]等。與個人對[[傷害]]或傷害威脅的[[感知]]有關。<ref>For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."</ref> 

痛苦通常被歸類為[[身體]]上的<ref>Examples of physical suffering: [[pain]] of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, [[itching]], [[hunger]], [[thirst]], [[nausea]], [[air hunger]], [[sleep deprivation]]. {{cite web|title=IASP Pain Terminology|url=http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section%3DGeneral_Resource_Links%26Template%3D%2FCM%2FHTMLDisplay.cfm%26ContentID%3D3058|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926205544/http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=General_Resource_Links&Template=%2FCM%2FHTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=3058|archive-date=September 26, 2008|access-date=September 11, 2008}}{{cite web|title=UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care|url=http://www.palliative.uab.edu/response/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028180547/http://www.palliative.uab.edu/response/|archive-date=2007-10-28|access-date=2008-09-11}} Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of [https://books.google.com/books?id=tjua97jPvEYC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=suffering+sumner+happiness&source=bl&ots=ZyDU9Tqs6H&sig=kgb_8YA1EFDjufwDCACs6w99ND8&hl=en&ei=w9qbSs-3Ns-G8QaTufDCBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics] {{Wayback|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjua97jPvEYC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=suffering+sumner+happiness&source=bl&ots=ZyDU9Tqs6H&sig=kgb_8YA1EFDjufwDCACs6w99ND8&hl=en&ei=w9qbSs-3Ns-G8QaTufDCBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false|date=20211221082506}}: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."</ref>或[[心智]]上的。<ref>Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see [[Psychological pain]]). Examples of mental suffering: [[depression (mood)]] / [[hopelessness]], [[grief]], [[sadness]] / [[loneliness]] / [[Broken heart|heartbreak]], [[disgust]], [[irritation]], [[anger]], [[jealousy]], [[envy]], [[Taṇhā|craving or yearning]], [[frustration]], [[anguish]], [[angst]], [[fear]], [[anxiety]] / [[panic]], [[shame]] / [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[Regret (emotion)|regret]], [[embarrassment]] / [[humiliation]], [[Psychomotor agitation|restlessness]].</ref> 它可能有各種程度的強度，從輕微到無法忍受。持續[[時間]]長度和發生[[頻率]]的因素通常與強度因素相結合。受苦者或其他人對痛苦的[[態度 (心理學)|態度]]可能有很大差異，這取決於它被認為是可以避免或不可避免、有用或無用、值得或不值得的。

苦在各種生物的[[生命]]中以多種方式發生，經常是[[戲劇]]性的。因此，人類活動的許多領域都與痛苦的某些方面有關。這些方面可能包括痛苦的性質、過程、起源和原因和意義、相關的個人、社會和文化行為<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan|last=Eggerman, Panter Brick|first=Mark, Catherine|date=2010|journal=Social Science & Medicine|issue=1|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023|volume=71|pages=71–83|pmc=3125115|pmid=20452111}}</ref>、治療、管理和使用。

痛苦與人類的[[意識]]有關，而且經常伴隨著過去的經驗。

造成痛苦的常見示例有：

*[[需求 (心理學)|需求]]和期望未滿足
*失去摯愛、親友、寵物等重要人物
*與社會[[群體]]的分離
*來自外部的約束和限制
*面對[[老化]]、[[疾病]]和[[疼痛]]等

==字源==
在漢語中，痛，是指肉體上的[[疼痛]]，而苦，則是來自於[[味覺]]上的[[苦]][[澀]]感覺，將這兩種感覺結合，就形成痛苦這個詞。痛苦是一個概括性的形容語，肉體上產生的疼痛感受，可以稱為痛苦，而心靈上的煩惱掙扎，也可以稱為痛苦。

==宗教對「苦」的詮釋==
{{main|苦 (佛教)}}

== 參考資料 ==
{{Reflist|2}}{{Reflist|2}}{{Pain}}
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[[Category:情緒]]
[[Category:心理学]]
[[Category:痛苦]]
[[Category:各类情绪]]