编辑“自尊”（章节）

== 種類 ==

=== 高度自尊 ===
擁有健康自尊水平的人：<ref>Adapted from {{cite book|first=D. E.|last=Hamachek|title=Encounters with the Self|url=https://archive.org/details/encounterswithse00done|url-access=registration|publisher=Rinehart|location=New York|year=1971|isbn=9780030777851}}</ref>

* 堅信某些價值觀和原則，即使遇到反對，也準備捍衛它們，感到足夠安全，可以根據經驗修改它們。<ref name="Bonet2">[https://books.google.com/books?hl=es&lr=&id=iTwVTnXcuBcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false José-Vicente Bonet. ''Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima''] {{Wayback|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=es&lr=&id=iTwVTnXcuBcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=20220504031812 }}. 1997. Ed. Sal Terrae. Maliaño (Cantabria, España). {{ISBN|978-8429311334}}.</ref>
* 能夠按照他們認為的最佳選擇行事，相信自己的判斷，當別人不喜歡他們的選擇時不會感到內疚。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 不要浪費時間過度擔心過去發生的事情，也不要擔心未來可能發生的事情。他們從過去學習併計劃未來，但盡情投入地活在當下。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 完全相信自己解決問題的能力，在失敗和困難之後不會猶豫。他們在需要時向他人尋求幫助。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 認為自己在尊嚴上與他人平等，而不是低人一等，同時接受某些才能、個人聲望或經濟地位的差異。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 了解他們對他人來說是一個有趣且有價值的人，至少對與他們有友誼的人來說是這樣。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 抵制操縱，只有在看起來合適和方便的情況下才與他人合作。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 承認並接受不同的內在感受和驅動力，無論是積極的還是消極的，只有在他們選擇時才會向他人展示這些驅動力。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 能夠享受各種各樣的活動。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 對他人的感受和需要很敏感；尊重普遍接受的社會規則，不主張以犧牲他人為代價而繁榮的權利或願望。<ref name="Bonet2"/>
* 當挑戰出現時，可以努力尋找解決方案並表達不滿，而不會貶低自己或他人。<ref name="KidsHealth">{{cite web|title=Developing Your Child's Self-Esteem|url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/self_esteem.html|access-date=27 November 2012|date=March 2012|last=New|first=Michelle|website=[[KidsHealth]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123035242/http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/self_esteem.html|archive-date=2012-11-23}}</ref>

=== 安全與防禦 ===
一個人可以擁有高自尊並自信地保持自尊，而他們不需要其他人的保證來保持積極的自我看法，而其他具有防禦性高自尊的人可能仍會在羅森伯格量表（Rosenberg self-esteem scale，縮寫作RSES）上報告積極的自我評價，因為所有高自尊的人會這樣做；然而，他們積極的自我看法是脆弱的，容易受到批評。防禦性高自尊的人會將潛意識的自我懷疑和不安全感內化，導致他們對可能收到的任何批評做出非常消極的反應。這些人需要不斷地從他人那裡得到積極的反饋，以保持他們的自我價值感。反覆表揚的必要性可能與自負、傲慢的行為有關，有時甚至與對質疑個人自我價值的任何人的攻擊性和敵意情緒有關，這是受威脅的自負的一個例子。<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jordan|editor3-first=M. P.|publisher=Erlbaum|location=Mahwah, NJ|pages=117–45|volume=9|title=Motivated social perception: The Ontario symposium|editor4-last=Olsen|editor4-first=J. M.|editor3-last=Zanna|editor2-last=Fein|first1=C. H.|editor2-first=S.|editor1-last=Spencer|editor1-first=S. J.|chapter='I love me...I love me not': Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem and defensiveness|year=2003|first3=M. P.|last3=Zanna|first2=S. J.|last2=Spencer|isbn=978-0805840360}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Secure and defensive high self-esteem|url=http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/jordan2003.pdf|first1=C. H.|last2=Spencer|first2=S. J.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|issue=5|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969|year=2003|volume=85|pages=969–78|pmid=14599258|last3=Zanna|first3=M. P.|last4=Hoshino-Browne|first4=E.|last5=Correll|first5=J.|last1=Jordan|access-date=2021-12-15|archive-date=2021-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010005143/http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/jordan2003.pdf}}</ref>

《[[教育心理學期刊]]》進行了一項研究，他們使用了 383 名馬來西亞本科生參與五所公立大學的工作綜合學習 (WIL) 課程的樣本，以測試自尊與其他心理屬性之間的關係，例如自我效能感和自我-信心。結果表明，自尊與自信心和自我效能感呈顯著正相關，因為自尊高的學生在大學的表現優於自尊低的學生。結論是高等教育機構和雇主應該強調本科生自尊發展的重要性。<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Psychological Impact of Work-Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Relation between Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence|first1=Amar Hisham|last2=Ibrahim|first2=Hazril Izwar|date=2019-06-24|journal=International Journal of Educational Psychology|issue=2|doi=10.17583/ijep.2019.3389|volume=8|pages=188–213|language=en-US|issn=2014-3591|last3=Rajadurai|first3=Jegatheesan|last4=Sohail|first4=M. Sadiq|last1=Jaaffar|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== 內隱、外顯、自戀和威脅的自我主義 ===
[[內隱自尊]]是指一個人以一種自發的、自動的或無意識的方式積極或消極地評價自己的傾向。它與外顯自尊形成對比，外顯自尊需要更有意識和反思的自我評價。外顯自尊和內隱自尊都是自尊的亞型。

[[自戀]]是人們可能具有的一種性格，代表對自己的過度愛。它的特點是誇大了自我價值。在自戀測量（Robert Raskin發想出的40項是非測試題）中得分高的個人可能會選擇對諸如“如果我統治世界，世界會變得更好”這樣的陳述是正確的<ref>Barbara Krahe, ''The Social Psychology of Aggression'' (Psychology Press, 2013), 75.</ref>。自戀和自尊之間只有中等程度的相關性<ref>{{cite journal|title=Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/155e777a-4d9d-4417-8cf2-f6e6403e2ee7|first1=C.|last2=Rudich|first2=E. A.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|issue=3|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400|year=2004|volume=87|pages=400–16|pmid=15382988|last3=Gregg|first3=A. P.|last4=Kumashiro|first4=M.|last5=Rusbult|first5=C.|last1=Sedikieds|access-date=2021-12-15|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802165625/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/are-normal-narcissists-psychologically-healthy-self-esteem-matter|dead-url=no}}</ref>；也就是說，一個人可以有高自尊但低自戀，也可以是一個自負、令人討厭的人，具有高自尊和高自戀。<ref>{{cite web|title=Narcissism vs. Authentic Self-Esteem|url=http://www.afterpsychotherapy.com/narcissism-vs-authentic-self-esteem/|access-date=22 October 2017|date=17 January 2011|website=afterpsychotherapy.com|archive-date=2022-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407212152/http://www.afterpsychotherapy.com/narcissism-vs-authentic-self-esteem/}}</ref>

受威脅的自我主義（英語：egotism）的特徵是對威脅自戀者自我的批評的回應；他們經常以敵對和侵略性的方式作出反應。<ref name="BaumeisterSmartBoden1996">{{cite journal|title=Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-review_1996-01_103_1/page/5|first1=Roy F.|last2=Smart|first2=L.|journal=[[Psychological Review]]|issue=1|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5|year=1996|volume=103|pages=5–33|pmid=8650299|last3=Boden|first3=J.|last1=Baumeister|citeseerx=10.1.1.1009.3747}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Narcissism and self-evaluation maintenance: Explorations in object relations|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_1993-12_19_6/page/668|first1=C. C.|last2=Rhodewalk|first2=F.|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|issue=6|doi=10.1177/0146167293196001|year=1993|volume=19|pages=668–76|last1=Morf|s2cid=145525829}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title='Isn't it fun to get the respect we're going to deserve?' Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2003-02_29_2/page/261|first1=J. M.|last2=Campbell|first2=W. K.|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|issue=2|doi=10.1177/0146167202239051|year=2003|volume=29|pages=261–72|pmid=15272953|last1=Twenge|s2cid=29837581}}</ref>

=== 低的 ===
低自尊可能由多種因素引起，包括[[遺傳]]因素、外貌或體重、[[心理健康]]問題、[[社會經濟地位]]、重大的情感（負面）經歷、[[社會污名]]、[[同儕壓力|同輩壓力]]或[[霸凌|欺凌]]。<ref>{{cite news|author=Jones FC|title=Low self esteem|newspaper=Chicago Defender|pages=33|year=2003|issn=0745-7014}}</ref>

自尊心低的人可能會表現出以下一些特徵：<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indispensable Self-Esteem|author=Adapted, Gill J|journal=Human Development|volume=1|page=1980}}</ref>{{Medical citation needed|date=2021年9月}}

* 強烈的自我批評和不滿。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 對批評的過度敏感，對批評的怨恨和被攻擊的感覺。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 長期的優柔寡斷和對錯誤的過度恐懼。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 過分取悅和不願取悅任何請願者的意願。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* [[完美主義]]，當沒有達到完美時會導致沮喪。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 神經質的內疚，沉迷於或誇大過去錯誤的嚴重程度。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 沒有任何近因的漂浮的敵意和普遍的防禦性和易怒。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* [[悲觀主義|悲觀情緒]]和普遍的消極前景。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* [[羨慕|嫉妒]]、反感或普遍的怨恨。<ref name="Bonet2" />
* 將暫時的挫折視為永久性的、無法忍受的情況。<ref name="KidsHealth" />

低自尊的人往往對自己很挑剔。有些人在評估自我價值時依賴於他人的認可和讚揚。其他人可能會根據成功來衡量他們的討人喜歡程度：如果成功，其他人會接受自己，但如果失敗則不會。患有慢性低自尊的人患精神障礙的風險更高；這種行為也與形成精神病症狀密切相關。<ref>Warman DM, Lysaker PH, Luedtke B, Martin JM (2010) Self-esteem and delusionproneness.JNervMentDis.198:455–457.</ref><ref>Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Bashforth H, Garety P, Dunn G,Kuipers E (2006) Emotion and psychosis: Links between depression, self-esteem,negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations.Schizophr Res.86:181–188</ref><ref>Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis.Psychol Med.31:189–195.</ref><ref>Bentall RP, Kinderman P, Kaney S (1994) The self, attributional processes andabnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions.Behav Res Ther.32:331–341</ref><ref>Karatzias T, Gumley A, Power K, O'Grady M (2007) Illness appraisals and self-esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia.ComprPsychiatry.48:371–375.</ref><ref>Bradshaw W, Brekke JS (1999) Subjective experience in schizophrenia: Factorsinfluencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress.Am J Ortho-psychiatry.69:254–260.</ref><ref>Blairy S, Linotte S, Souery D, Papadimitriou GN, Dikeos D, Lerer B, Kaneva R,Milanova V, Serretti A, Macciardi F, Mendlewicz J (2004) Social adjust-ment and self-esteem of bipolar patients: A multicentric study.J Affect Disord.79:97–103</ref><ref>Bowins B, Shugar G (1998) Delusions and self-esteem.Can J Psychiatry.43:154–158.</ref>

==== 療法 ====
元認知療法（英語：Metacognitive therapy，縮寫作MCT）、[[EMDR]] 技術、正念認知療法（英語：Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy，縮寫作MBCT）、理性情緒行為療法（英語：Rational emotive behavior therapy，縮寫作REBT）、[[認知行為療法]]，以及特質和建構療法（英語：trait and construct therapies）已被證明可以提高被治療者的自尊。<ref name="ORCID 2021">{{cite web|title=ORCID|url=https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-8776|access-date=2021-09-07|date=2021-08-31|website=ORCID|archive-date=2021-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010005142/https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-8776}}</ref>

=== 特定領域的自尊 ===
自尊涉及個人如何整體評價自己，而特定領域的自尊方面則涉及他們如何在各種相關的生活領域中評價自己。 自尊的這種功能上不同的方面可能包括社會、情感、身體相關、學校表現相關和創意藝術領域的自我評價。<ref name="Burger et al">{{cite journal|title=Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: A variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment.|journal=Int J Environ Res Public Health|issue=19|doi=10.3390/ijerph181910429|year=2021|volume=18|page=10429|pmc=8508291|pmid=34639731|author1=Burger, C.|author2=Bachmann, L.|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50像素]]  Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Multidimensional scale of self-esteem (EMES-16): Psychometric evaluation of a domain-specific measure of self-esteem for French-speaking adolescents.|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0165025418824996|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Development|issue=5|doi=10.1177/0165025418824996|year=2019|volume=43|pages=436–446|author3=Oubrayrie-Roussel N|author1=Barbot B.|author2=Safont-Mottay C.|s2cid=151135576|access-date=2021-12-15|archive-date=2021-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026082928/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0165025418824996}}</ref>

已發現它們可以預測與心理功能、健康、教育和工作相關的結果。<ref>{{cite journal|title=Development of domain-specific self-evaluations: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.|url=http://content.apa.org/journals/psp/120/1/145|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|issue=1|doi=10.1037/pspp0000378|year=2021|volume=120|pages=145–172|pmid=33252972|author3=Erol R.Y.|author4=Krauss S.|author5=Luciano E.C.|author1=Orth U.|author2=Dapp L.C.|s2cid=227244920|access-date=2021-12-15|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802165629/https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2020-89416-001.html|dead-url=no}}</ref> 例如，社會領域的低自尊（即自我感知的社會能力）已被反覆確定為[[霸凌|欺凌]]受害的風險因素。<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bully/victim problems and their association with coping behaviour in conflictual peer interactions among school-age children.|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01443410125042|journal=Educational Psychology|issue=1|doi=10.1080/01443410125042|year=2001|volume=21|pages=59–66|author1=Andreou E|s2cid=143734781|access-date=2021-12-15|archive-date=2022-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620212100/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01443410125042}}</ref><ref name="Burger et al2">{{cite journal|title=Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: A variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment.|journal=Int J Environ Res Public Health|issue=19|doi=10.3390/ijerph181910429|year=2021|volume=18|page=10429|pmc=8508291|pmid=34639731|author1=Burger, C.|author2=Bachmann, L.|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50像素]]  Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]].</ref>